海洋动物行为控制技术分析及应用

以海豚、海狮、鲸等为代表的海洋动物具有发达的大脑,具备天生的潜水和超声波定位等卓越本领。利用海洋动物的这些特性及通过训练养成的反射动作，可以完成人类或水下航行器无法完成或难以完成的任务。海洋动物行为控制技术则是实现.上述功能的关键。通过对国外海洋动物部队及海洋动物行为控制技术的研究,从运动行为、条件反射和神经类型等方面分析了海洋动物行为控制技术的基本机理。在此基础上,分析了操作性条件反射和人工电刺激等两种主要的行为控制方法,提出了海洋动物行为控制技术的未来可能应用方向。研究表明,以正强化为主导的操作性条件反射方法在各国海洋动物控制实践中占据主要地位,而人工电刺激方法的研究则稍显迟滞且成功的应用实例较少。可以预见,海洋动物行为控制技术在未来的海洋争夺中必将发挥越来越重要的作用。     

A software workbench for estimating the effects of cumulative sound exposure in marine mammals

The U.S. Navy has initiated a multidisciplinary research and development program to study the Effects of Sound on the Marine Environment (ESME). As part of this effort, the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) is developing a software workbench for estimating the effects of cumulative sound exposure on marine mammals. This paper describes the workbench, and presents some preliminary simulation results. The workbench integrates data sets and computer models contributed by researchers in the areas of oceanography, underwater acoustic propagation, and marine mammal physiology and behavior. Models are incorporated for simulating animal movement, for estimating the received acoustic time series along an animal's track, and for predicting temporary threshold shifts (TTSs) induced by acoustic exposure. TTS predictions are shown to be highly dependent upon both the environmental variables and the movement of the marine mammals.     

A method for modeling marine mammal movement and behavior for environmental impact assessment

Estimating the impact of anthropogenic sound on marine animals entails consideration of animal location in the vertical and horizontal planes and the behavior of the animal (e.g., breeding, foraging, migration) at the time of sound exposure. To approach more realistic impact estimates, the effects of sound on the marine environment (ESME) model incorporates a simulation program that permits fine-scale control over simulated marine animal (animat) movement and behavior. The simulation program, known as the Marine Mammal Movement and Behavior (3MB) module, provides user control over animats that is scaleable to available information about the species of concern. Movement and behavior is stochastically determined by sampling from distributions describing rates of movement in the horizontal and vertical planes, direction of travel, time at the surface between dives, time at depth, and time in and transition between behavioral states. Influence of behavior over each of the other distributions is permitted. As knowledge of marine animal behavior, movement, and ecology increases, the flexibility and level of control provided by such models will increase the potential for realistic impact estimates.     

Why management decisions involving marine mammals should include animal welfare

This paper argues the need for consideration of both animal welfare and conservation when making management decisions regarding human activities that affect marine mammals. Population level effects may take a long time to be determined, whereas animal welfare metrics can be observed in the short term, enabling problems to be addressed more rapidly. In addition, implementing current legislation in many countries related to the management of impacts on marine mammals requires animal welfare to be taken into account. Such legislation reflects societal values and public concern for individual animals. Two case studies are discussed. These are: management measures related to incidental killing in commercial fisheries, and injury or disturbance from intense sources of underwater noise from seismic surveys. Both of these threats have welfare and conservation implications for marine mammals. An increased focus on welfare would better reflect societal values including requirements under various legal regimes and could also enable more targeted and effective conservation actions.     

State-space models for bio-loggers: A methodological road map

Ecologists have an unprecedented array of bio-logging technologies available to conduct in situ studies of horizontal and vertical movement patterns of marine animals. These tracking data provide key information about foraging, migratory, and other behaviours that can be linked with bio-physical datasets to understand physiological and ecological influences on habitat selection. In most cases, however, the behavioural context is not directly observable and therefore, must be inferred. Animal movement data are complex in structure, entailing a need for stochastic analysis methods. The recent development of state-space modelling approaches for animal movement data provides statistical rigor for inferring hidden behavioural states, relating these states to bio-physical data, and ultimately for predicting the potential impacts of climate change. Despite the widespread utility, and current popularity, of state-space models for analysis of animal tracking data, these tools are not simple and require considerable care in their use. Here we develop a methodological “road map” for ecologists by reviewing currently available state-space implementations. We discuss appropriate use of state-space methods for location and/or behavioural state estimation from different tracking data types. Finally, we outline key areas where the methodology is advancing, and where it needs further development.     

Combining data from a multisensor tag and passive sonar to determine the diving behavior of a sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus)

Reports on the diving behavior of a sperm whale tagged and tracked on September 6, 2000 during the Sirena 2000 cruise in the Ligurian Sea. A total of about 4.5 h of acoustic and nonacoustic sensor data were recorded when a sperm whale was tagged with a Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution developed tag with a hydrophone, motion, and pressure sensors. The animal was simultaneously tracked with a passive sonar system deployed from the NATO research vessel NRV Alliance. By combining data from the tag and passive sonar, we were able to reconstruct a three-dimensional track of the whale, along with its orientation and vocal behavior. While it was tagged, the whale carried out three deep dives to a depth of about 900 m in an area with a bottom depth of about 2600 m. The inter-click intervals of the diving whale were not consistent with ranging on the bottom, but were consistent with the hypothesis that the whale was possibly echolocating on some target(s) near the depth at which it dove to feed. This study demonstrated an ability to track subtle changes in the behavior of diving whales. This ability is important for three areas: 1) basic research, 2) studies of the responses of these animals to controlled exposures of man-made noise, and 3) studies to infer the biological significance of behavioral disruption.     

Interplay between top-down, bottom-up, and wasp-waist control in marine ecosystems

In October 2004, the North Pacific Marine Science Organization (PICES) sponsored a symposium to consider “Mechanisms that regulate North Pacific ecosystems: Bottom up, top down, or something else?” It sought to examine how marine populations, particularly the upper-trophic-level species, are regulated and to understand how energy flows through marine ecosystems. This introductory essay examines aspects of control mechanisms in pelagic marine ecosystems and some of the issues discussed during the symposium and in the 11 papers that were selected for this special issue. At global scales, the greatest biomass of fishes, seabirds and marine mammals tends to occur in regions of the world ocean with high primary production, e.g., the sub-arctic seas and up-welling regions of continental shelves. These large-scale animal distribution patterns are driven by food availability, not the absence of predators. At regional scales however, it is likely that current predation or past predation events have shaped local distributions, at least in marine birds and pinnipeds. Wasp-waist control occurs when one of the intermediate trophic levels is dominated by a single species, as occurs with small pelagic fishes of the world’s up-welling zones. Processes in these ecosystems may have features that result in a switch from bottom-up to top-down control.     

中国海水经济(养殖)动物种质资源元数据库的概念、内容与体系

随着中国海水养殖业的大力发展，其种质资源保护和种质保存的研究日趋广泛，由此获得的数据越来越多，人们对这些数据的共享要求也越来越迫切。种质资源元数据库建立的目的在于将大量分散的资料在新的层次上系统地加以收集、整理和补充，使动物种质信息管理规范化，提高整体管理水平，并逐步实现网络化和资源共享，使海水经济 动物种质资源和种质库的研究成果得到充分有效地利用，发挥其科学价值和社会价值。所以，为有效地进行海水经济动物遗传多样性保护， 为向海水养殖业和科学研究提供优良种质信息，为政府部门提供决策信息，促进中国养殖业的可持续发展，建立海洋经济动物种质资源信息系统元数据库是很有必要和迫切的。     

A digital acoustic recording tag for measuring the response of wild marine mammals to sound

Definitive studies on the response of marine mammals to anthropogenic sound are hampered by the short surface time and deep-diving lifestyle of many species. A novel archival tag, called the DTAG, has been developed to monitor the behavior of marine mammals, and their response to sound, continuously throughout the dive cycle. The tag contains a large array of solid-state memory and records continuously from a built-in hydrophone and suite of sensors. The sensors sample the orientation of the animal in three dimensions with sufficient speed and resolution to capture individual fluke strokes. Audio and sensor recording is synchronous so the relative timing of sounds and motion can be determined precisely. The DTAG has been attached to more than 30 northern right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) and 20 sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) with recording duration of up to 12 h per deployment. Several deployments have included sound playbacks to the tagged whale and a transient response to at least one playback is evident in the tag data.     

A Comparison Between GEBCO Sheet 5.17 and the International Bathymetric Chart of the Arctic Ocean (IBCAO) Version 1.0

In 1979, the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) published Sheet 5.17 in the Fifth Edition of its series of global bathymetric maps. Sheet 5.17 covered the northern polar region above 64° N, and was for long the authoritative portrayal of Arctic bathymetry. The GEBCO compilation team had access to an extremely sparse sounding database from the central Arctic Ocean, due to the difficulty of mapping in this permanently ice covered region. In the past decade, there has been a substantial increase in the database of central Arctic Ocean bathymetry, due to the declassification of sounding data collected by US and British Navy nuclear submarines, and to the capability of modern icebreakers to measure ocean depths in heavy ice conditions. From these data sets, evidence has mounted to indicate that many of the smaller (and some larger) bathymetric features of Sheet 5.17 were poorly or wrongly defined. Within the framework of the project to construct the International Bathymetric Chart of the Arctic Ocean (IBCAO), all available historic and modern data sets were compiled to create a digital bathymetric model. In this paper, we compare both generally and in detail the contents of GEBCO Sheet 5.17 and version 1.0 of IBCAO, two bathymetric portrayals that were created more than 20 years apart. The results should be helpful in the analysis and assessment of previously published studies that were based on GEBCO Sheet 5.17. Ron Macnab: Retired.     

Trends in tagging of marine mammals: a review of marine mammal biologging studies

The number of scientific papers resulting from biologging instruments deployed on marine mammals is increasing as improved technologies result in smaller devices and improved sensor-, storage- and transmission capabilities. I undertook a comprehensive review of papers resulting from biologging deployments on free-ranging marine mammals between 1965 and 2013 (n = 620) to summarise where (e.g. on which species, as well as in which geographic areas) deployment efforts were focused, the impacts of the resulting papers, and where there are shortcomings in the literature. Species-, sex- and age-class biases were evident in terms of animals instrumented. Also, large proportions of the papers resulted from deployments on a small number of species (particularly among the pinnipeds) and were more often on adult females than other demographic classes. The mean impact of papers (as assessed using journal impact factors and numbers of citations) was consistent over time, and was influenced by the number of species studied, sample sizes and instrument capabilities. I found a paucity of papers addressing device influences on animals, as well as studies with explicit conservation and/or management implications. This review aims to increase awareness of marine mammal biologging data already collected, stimulate appropriate further studies, and encourage the reuse of existing data.     

水生动物行为生态学研究进展

水生动物行为生态学是动物行为生态学的重要分支，对理解水生动物的生存行为机制、指导渔业生产和保护濒危水生动物具有重要意义。近年来，随着新型研究技术和手段的出现，水生动物行为生态学在短时间内得到了迅速发展。水生动物行为多种多样，本文主要综述了水生动物行为生态学的研究方法与手段，探讨了水生动物运动行为、摄食行为、繁殖行为和集群行为等方面的研究进展，并展望了水生动物行为生态学的研究与应用前景，以期为水生动物行为生态学研究与应用提供借鉴和参考。     

Dispersal, Genetic Differentiation and Speciation in Estuarine Organisms

For some of their occupants, estuaries represent spatially discrete habitats, isolated from each other by barriers to dispersal or physiological tolerance. We present contrasting strategies for the retention or export of larvae from their estuary of origin, and consider the implications these have on population structure and divergence. Reported patterns of genetic differentiation and inferred gene flow in estuarine taxa (principally animals) are reviewed, and difficulties in the interpretation of existing genetic data discussed. Species concepts and models of speciation relevant to estuaries are outlined, and patterns of speciation of estuarine taxa reviewed. It is concluded that estuarine environments tend to restrict gene flow and impose distinct selective regimes, generating physiologically adapted populations divergent from their marine counterparts, and the potential for in situ speciation in complete or partial isolation. The resulting taxa may represent sibling or cryptic species groups of truly estuarine origin, rather than simply estuarine populations of marine eurytopes.     

Bio-logging of marine migratory species in the law of the sea

The use of advanced and emerging remote data-collection technologies, and in particular bio-logging of marine migratory species, raises fundamental questions about the scope of authority of coastal states to regulate marine scientific research in the waters under their jurisdiction. Bio-logging involves the attachment of devices to marine animals that collect and transmit data about their movements and aspects of the local marine environment, and is now routinely used by marine scientists to support conservation programs and augment oceanographic data collection. Tagged marine life, including seabirds, marine mammals, sea turtles and pelagic fishes, may interact unpredictably with the territorial seas and exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of numerous coastal states. This article explores the legal implications of bio-logging within the legal regime of marine scientific research in the law of the sea. Although bio-logging is a form of marine scientific research, when it is initiated outside a coastal state׳s jurisdiction it does not later fall within it, even if the tagged animals subsequently enters a coastal state׳s territorial sea or EEZ.     

海洋底质数据库引擎技术研究

空间数据引擎是实现空间数据高效访问和管理的关键技术之一.结合海洋地理信息系统应用需求,针对海洋底质数据特点,构建了海洋底质空间数据库引擎,介绍了其数据模型和数据访问结构,并通过工程实践实现了系统功能,为海洋底质空间数据组织和管理提供一个有效的解决方案,同时为海洋地理信息系统提供了强有力数据支持.     

Reflection on the first five years of South Africa’s Acoustic Tracking Array Platform (ATAP): status,challenges and opportunities

The Acoustic Tracking Array Platform (ATAP) is a marine science programme that monitors the movements and migrations of inshore marine animals along the South African coastline. Acoustically tagged animals are monitored by an expanded network of approximately 100 automated data-logging acoustic receivers moored at strategic node sites, from Cape Point in the west to the South Africa–Mozambique border in the east. During five years since its inception, in 2011, the ATAP has achieved outstanding progress in terms of the numbers of animals and the variety of species tagged. To date, the ATAP has yielded over 2.6 million detections from more than 700 acoustically tagged animals, representing 27 different species from 20 families, including the African penguin Spheniscus demersus, fishery-at-risk species (e.g. dusky kob Argyrosomus japonicus) and iconic elasmobranchs (e.g. white shark Carcharodon carcharias). Following a period of considerable equipment loss in 2014, refinement of the receiver network was required and the deeper receivers at each site were decommissioned without influencing the integrity of the nationwide array. The platform, managed by the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, ultimately represents a low-cost method of collecting long-term data that currently benefits approximately 25 researchers from 14 organisations. Case studies are presented to expose the opportunities provided by the ATAP, which will undoubtedly yield new discoveries and provide a greater understanding of the movement patterns and migrations of a wide variety of inshore marine and estuary-associated species.     

Movement patterns of individual migrating western rock lobster,Panulirus cygnus,in Western Australia

Abstract

Migrating and pre‐migrating western rock lobster Panulirus cygnus were tagged with datastorage tags that recorded temperature and pressure, which was converted to depth (Pressure (kPa) — surface pressure (kPa)/10)) at Dongara and Jurien Bay in Western Australia between December 2005 and December 2007. All lobsters were fitted with tag flotation devices, and returns were made by either commercial fishers or beachcombers who located detached tags. A total of 135 lobsters were released with “backpack” flotation tags, but only 84 (62.2%) of the backpacks carried data‐storage tags. Depths of release ranged from 5 to 113 m. Of the tagged lobsters released, commercial fishers recaptured 52 (38.5%), whereas 11 tags (8.1%) were found by beachcombers. At least 33%, and possibly up to 63%, of animals identified by their pale coloration as pre‐migrating individuals, failed to migrate. Those that did migrate (n = 11) were at liberty from 1 to 94 days and showed generally similar movement patterns in that they migrated only at night from darkness (after 2000 h) until after moonrise. However, their movement patterns were less constrained by the rising of the moon in deep water. Only 27% migrated nightly, compared with 73% that skipped migrating on one or more nights, to restart some days later. This latter proportion would likely have been considerably greater, but some migrating animals were only at large for short periods before recapture, and therefore had little time to show any variation to the nocturnal migration pattern. Individual speeds of migration during periods of activity were estimated for nine lobsters as 0.20 to 0.68 km h^?1, with a mean speed of 0.44 km h^?1, or 7.4 m min^?1. Improved knowledge of daily movement patterns resulting from this study provides a potentially important input into technological improvements in bait and pot design.     

Marine Ecology - A Century of Changes

Abstract. The major changes within the concepts of marine ecology are investigated, with the aim to design this new journal's scientific format. Four phases of marine sciences are distinguished: the phase of seafarers, of oceanographic expeditions, of marine stations, and of field research. The changes in the latter two are discussed in detail. The changes are described as occurring along three axes. First, as a movement towards the object; accomplished by fieldwork, scientific diving, remote controlled equipment, and by underwater experimentation. Second, the cooperation between several disciplines that led towards bridging gaps. And lastly, how the discovery of unifying principles in ecology (the development of an ecological theory) led the approach in marine ecology towards increasing complexity.     

Towards an ecosystem-based approach of Guam's coral reefs: The human dimension

Management of tropical reef ecosystems under pressure from terrestrial and extractive marine activities is not straightforward, especially when the interests of extractive and non-extractive marine resource sectors compete. Before implementing management actions, potential outcomes of alternative management strategies can be evaluated in order to avoid adverse or unintended consequences. In tropical reef ecosystems the continued existence of the cultural and recreational fishing activities and the economically important dive-based tourism and recreation industry rest on sustainably managed marine resources. Through a case study of Guam, an ecosystem model was linked with human behavior models for participation in fishing and diving to evaluate future socio-ecological impacts of different management options. Ecosystem indices for reef status and resilience, and extraction potential were identified to evaluate the performance of alternative management scenarios. These marine ecosystem indices link the natural system to human uses (fishing and dive-based tourism and recreation). Evaluating management scenarios indicate that applying a single management tool, such as input controls or marine preserves, without also managing the watershed, is suboptimal. Combining different management tools has negative near-term costs, particularly for the fishing sector, but these are likely to be outweighed by the long-term benefits obtained from greater species abundance. Adopting watershed management measures in addition to fishery regulations distributes the burden for improving the reef status across multiple sectors that contribute to reef pressures.     

Are marine reserves and non-consumptive activities compatible? A global analysis of marine reserve regulations

Marine reserves are places where wildlife and habitats are protected from extractive and depositional uses of the sea. Although considered to be the pinnacle in marine conservation, many permit non-consumptive activities with little or no regulation. This paper examines the potential impacts of 16 non-consumptive activities including scuba diving, sailing, scientific research and motor boating, and how they might compromise the conservation objectives of marine reserves. Examination of 91 marine reserves from 36 countries found little agreement or consistency in what non-consumptive activities are permitted in marine reserves and how they are regulated. The two most common activities allowed without regulation were swimming (mentioned in 80% of marine reserves and allowed in 63% of these) and kayaking (mentioned in 85%, allowed in 53%). Scuba diving was mentioned in 91% and allowed without regulation in 41%. A risk score for the likely level of threat to wildlife and/or habitats that each activity could produce was then assigned based on effects reported in the literature. The risk analysis suggests that motor boating and activities which include or require it have a high potential to negatively impact wildlife and habitats if inadequately managed. Hence protection against extractive or depositional activities alone is insufficient to secure the high standard of protection usually assumed in marine reserves. For this to be achieved activities typically considered as benign must receive appropriate management, especially with increasing recreational use.