Evaluation of the SWAT model for water balance study of a mountainous snowfed river basin of Nepal

In this study, a semi-distributed hydrologic model Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) has been employed for the Karnali River basin, Nepal to test its applicability for hydrological simulation. Further, model was evaluated to carry out the water balance study of the basin and to determine the snowmelt contribution in the river flow. Snowmelt Runoff Model (SRM) was also used to compare the snowmelt runoff simulated from the SWAT model. The statistical results show that performance of the SWAT model in the Karnali River basin is quite good (p-factor = 0.88 and 0.88, for daily calibration and validation, respectively; r-factor = 0.76 and 0.71, for daily calibration and validation, respectively). Baseflow alpha factor (ALPHA_BF) was found most sensitive parameter for the flow simulation. The study revealed that the average annual runoff volume available at the basin outlet is about 47.16 billion cubic metre out of which about 12% of runoff volume is contributed by the snowmelt runoff. About 25% of annual precipitation seems to be lost as evapotranspiration. The results revealed that both the models, SWAT and SRM, can be efficiently applied in the mountainous river basins of Nepal for planning and management of water resources.     

Review on snowmelt runoff simulation in mountain regions,Northwest China北大核心CSCD

Snowmelt runoff is a valuable water resource in Northwest China. In the past few decades, progress has been achieved in snowmelt runoff simulation in mountainous areas, including observation and simulation of snow melt process, improvement and development of distributed snow melt runoff model, and ability for application of snow melt runoff model with temporal and spatial distribution driving data. The development of interpolation algorithm, remote sensing and data assimilation technology provides data support for the widespread application of distributed snowmelt runoff model in northwest mountainous regions of China. Climate warming and economic and social development will further aggravate the contradiction between supply and demand of water resources in the arid regions of Northwest China, which requires higher precision and detail spatial and temporal resolution of snowmelt runoff simulation. Based on the progress and challenges on snowmelt runoff simulation in mountainous regions of Northwest China, following studies need more attention：the mechanism of snow accumulation and ablation, snow cover spatial and temporal distribution monitoring and high precision of snow distribution data acquisition, quantitative climate change impact on river basin snowmelt runoff. © 2022 The authors.     

黄河源区水文模拟中地形和融雪影响

为分析地形和融雪对水文模拟影响,利用SWAT模型在黄河源区进行1960—1990年水文模拟。二者的影响分别通过对子流域划分高程带和运用融雪模块来体现。研究表明,单独考虑融雪影响或考虑融雪、地形的共同影响下,模拟结果均能达到合格;单独考虑地形的影响下能达到良好。相比融雪影响,地形对流域水量平衡的模拟起主要作用。划分高程带对子流域的气温影响较大,对降水影响小。子流域气温的降低使得蒸散发减小,从而增加产水量,其中地下水增加最多,其次是地表径流和壤中流。地形和融雪的影响使地下水的补给来源改变,调整地下水参数后,最终模拟结果达到优秀。地形和融雪在黄河源区水文模拟中的影响可以为其他高山地区水文研究提供参考。     

Coupling a glacier melt model to the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) model for hydrological modeling in north-western China

For the sustainable utilization of rivers in the mid and downstream regions, it is essential that land surface hydrological processes are quantified in high cold mountains regions, as it is in these regions where most of the larger rivers in China acquire their headstreams. Glaciers are one of the most important water resources of north-west China. However, they are seldom explicitly considered within hydrological models, and climate-change effects on glaciers, permafrost and snow cover will have increasingly important consequences for runoff. In this study, an energy-balance ice-melt model was integrated within the Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) macroscale hydrological model. The extended VIC model was applied to simulate the hydrological processes in the Aksu River basin, a large mountainous and glaciered catchment in north-west China. The runoff components and their response to climate change were analyzed based on the simulated and observed data. The model showed an acceptable performance, and achieved an efficiency coefficient R ² ≈ 0.8 for the complete simulation period. The results indicate that a large proportion of the catchment runoff is derived from ice meltwater and snowmelt water. In addition, over the last 38 years, rising temperature caused an extension in the snow/ice melting period and a reduction in the seasonality signal of runoff. Due to teh increased precipitation runoff, the Aksu catchment annual runoff had a positive trend, increasing by about 40.00 × 10⁶ m³ per year, or 25.7 %.     

塔里木河源区托什干河流域积雪动态及融雪径流模拟与预估

利用已被广泛使用的MODIS积雪数据, 获得了塔里木河源区之一的托什干河流域积雪变化信息. 结果表明: 流域积雪覆盖率时空差异显著, 在积雪丰富的年份, 1月积雪覆盖率可达90%以上, 但在积雪少的年份, 则只有50%; 2000年以来流域积雪呈现微弱增加的趋势, 积雪变化趋势呈现明显的时空差异. 相对于其他季节, 流域冬季积雪增加更为明显; 与其他高度带相比, 作为主要积雪覆盖区的海拔3 000~4 000 m高度带积雪的增加趋势也更为明显. 以流域所在的气象格网数据和积雪覆盖率变化曲线作为输入数据, 应用融雪径流模型(SRM)模拟了流域春季融雪径流过程, 率定了模型主要参数, 获得了较好的结果. 以CMIP5的3种RCP情景为驱动数据, 应用模型预估了流域2021-2050年的融雪径流状况, 结果显示 4月之前径流变化不明显, 之后径流峰值增大显著, 不同气候情景对径流的影响不明显.     

The simulation of snowmelt runoff in the ungauged Kaidu River Basin of TianShan Mountains,China

Snowmelt runoff is an important source of water resources in the arid mountain area. Modelling snowmelt runoff for cold regions remains a problematic aspect because of the lack of data by gauges in large basins. In order to overcome the shortage of measured data in the snowmelt runoff modelling, the temperature interpolation method would greatly help in improving the simulation accuracy and describing the snow-hydrological behaviours of the study catchments. In this study, the temperature is the principal variable used to estimate the importance of the melting of snow cover using the snowmelt runoff model. Five different temperature interpolation attempts were performed over the Kaidu River Basin for the snowmelt season of the year 2000. Three temperature inputs were taken directly from the individual weather stations in or near the study area, and the other two temperature inputs were interpolated from the three weather stations. The results indicated that the temperature estimated from different methods could result in quite a difference in runoffs in comparison with the observed ones. The simulation results using average temperature from the three stations showed good results; the simulation run with the weighted average temperature generated a lower R ² than the average temperature of three stations and using temperature directly adopted from three individual stations gave various results. The weather stations used to perform the snowmelt runoff simulation should be located in the place which is most representative of the mountain weather conditions, and the land cover and topography that those stations represented also play an important role in the snowmelt runoff simulation.     

Use of SWAT to determine the effects of climate and land use changes on streamflow and sediment concentration in the Purna River basin,India

A semi-distributed, physically based, basin-scale Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was developed to determine the key factors that influence streamflow and sediment concentration in Purna river basin in India and to determine the potential impacts of future climate and land use changes on these factors. A SWAT domain with a Geographical Information System (GIS) was utilized for simulating and determining monthly streamflow and sediment concentration for the period 1980–2005 with a calibration period of 1980–1994 and validation period of 1995 to 2005. Additionally, a sequential uncertainty fitting (SUFI-2) method within SWAT-CUP was used for calibration and validation purpose. The overall performance of the SWAT model was assessed using the coefficient of determination (R²) and Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency parameter (E_NS) for both calibration and validation. For the calibration period, the R² and E_NS values were determined to be 0.91 and 0.91, respectively. For the validation period, the R² and E_NS were determined to be 0.83 and 0.82, respectively. The model performed equally well with observed sediment data in the basin, with the R² and E_NS determined to be 0.80 and 0.75 for the calibration period and 0.75 and 0.65 for the validation, respectively. The projected precipitation and temperature show an increasing trend compared to the baseline condition. The study indicates that SWAT is capable of simulating long-term hydrological processes in the Purna river basin.     

Leaf cellulose δD and δO trends with elevation differ in direction among co-occurring, semiarid plant species

The potential to reconstruct paleoclimate from analyses of stable isotopes in fossil leaf cellulose could be enhanced by adequate calibration. This potential is likely to be particularly great in mid-latitude deserts, where a rich store of fossil leaves is available from rodent middens. Trends in δD and δ¹⁸O of leaf cellulose were examined for three species growing across climatic gradients caused by elevation and slope aspect in southeastern Utah, USA. The species differed in morphology (Pinus edulis vs. Yucca glauca), photosynthetic pathway (C₃Y. glauca vs. CAM Yucca baccata) or both (P. edulis vs. Y. baccata). The δD_LCN (leaf cellulose nitrate) and δ¹⁸O_LC (leaf cellulose) values of P. edulis decreased with elevation. Stem water δD values either increased (in spring) or did not change with elevation (in summer). Needle water δD values usually decreased with elevation and differed greatly with leaf age. These results suggest that δ cellulose values of P. edulis record the effects of climate on the isotopic composition of leaf water but not climate effects on meteoric water. In contrast to P. edulis, δD_LCN values of Y. glauca increased with elevation. The δ¹⁸O_LC values of Y. glauca also increased with elevation but less significantly and only on south-facing slopes. The δ cellulose values in both P. edulis and Y. glauca were most significantly related to changes in temperature, although temperature and precipitation were negatively correlated in the study area. Where all three species co-occurred, their δD_LCN values differed but their δ¹⁸O_LC values were the same. The disparity in δD_LCN between Y. baccata and the other species corresponds to differences in biochemical fractionations associated with photosynthetic pathway. Biochemical fractionations may also contribute to differences between the two C₃ species. Knowledge of factors affecting responses of individual plant species to environment may be required to infer climate from δD_LCN and δ¹⁸O_LC.     

Phase transitions in langbeinites II: Raman spectroscopic investigations of K2Cd2(SO4)3

Polarized single crystal Raman spectra of the langbeinite K₂Cd₂(SO₄)₃ were recorded for different polarisations. With a view to understanding the phase transition mechanism, the lattice vibrational spectra (0–300 cm^?1), as well as the SO₄ symmetric stretching mode v ₁ (1,022 cm^?1), were recorded at different temperatures. No soft modes were observed. From the study of the temperature variation of the integrated intensity I ₀ and band width Γ of the hard mode (1,022 cm^?1), both SO₄ libration and SO₄ order/disorder models were ruled out as possible phase transition models. On the other hand, the model of Speer and Salje (paper I), involving the distortion of the polyhedra around Cd and K ions, explains the observed temperature behaviour of the Raman spectra very well. The consequences of a possible hypothetical high-temperature phase are discussed.     

Recharge sources and hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in semiarid and karstic environments: A field study in the Granada Basin (Southern Spain)

The objective of this study is to refine the understanding of recharge processes in watersheds representative for karstic semiarid areas by means of stable isotope analysis and hydrogeochemistry. The study focuses on the Granada aquifer system which is located in an intramontane basin bounded by high mountain ranges providing elevation differences of almost 2900 m. These altitude gradients lead to important temperature and precipitation gradients and provide excellent conditions for the application of stable isotopes of water whose composition depends mainly on temperature. Samples of rain, snow, surface water and groundwater were collected at 154 locations for stable isotope studies (δ¹⁸O, D) and, in the case of ground- and surface waters, also for major and minor ion analysis. Thirty-seven springs were sampled between 2 and 5 times from October 2004 to March 2005 along an altitudinal gradient from 552 masl in the Granada basin to 2156 masl in Sierra Nevada. Nine groundwater samples were taken from the discharge of operating wells in the Granada basin which are all located between 540 and 728 masl. The two main rivers were monitored every 2–3 weeks at three different altitudes. Rainfall being scarce during the sampling period, precipitation could only be sampled during four rainfall events. Calculated recharge altitudes of springs showed that source areas of mainly snowmelt recharge are generally located between 1600 and 2000 masl. The isotope compositions of spring water indicate water sources from the western Mediterranean as well as from the Atlantic without indicating a seasonal trend. The isotope pattern of the Quaternary aquifer reflects the spatial separation of different sources of recharge which occur mainly by bankfiltration of the main rivers. Isotopic signatures in the southeastern part of the aquifer indicate a considerable recharge contribution by subsurface flow discharged from the adjacent carbonate aquifer. No evaporation effects due to agricultural irrigation were detected.     

气候变化对中国西北地区山区融雪径流的影响

选择祁连山黑河流域作为中国西北地区山区积雪流域的典型代表，分析了1956－1995年40a以来气候，积雪变化的状况和特点以及春季融雪径 波动趋势，利用融雪径流模型（Snowmelt Runoff Model-SRM)和卫星遥感数据模拟气温上升框架上的融雪径流变化情势，结果表明，中国西北地区山区的气候变化主要表现在年平均气温的缓慢上升而降水基本平稳，年内气温的上升幅度以1－2月份比较强烈，而3－6月融雪期的气温并没有大的变化，导致融雪期在时间尺度上的扩大，融雪径流呈慢增加趋势且受径流周期变化控制，融雪径流峰值的时间上前移。     

1990年以来天山乌鲁木齐河上游水资源研究进展

乌鲁木齐河是我国西北地区典型的降水、冰川和地下水综合补给的内陆河,对其水资源的研究不仅是西北寒区旱区水环境和水资源研究的热点,而且对区域生态环境改善和经济可持续发展具有重要意义。乌鲁木齐河水文水资源的研究内容十分广泛,并取得了很多高水平的学术成果。从高山区气候变化与冰冻圈的相互影响,山区降水变化与径流的相互影响,出山口径流对气候变化的响应以及洪灾、致灾因子分析,流域内同位素、树轮气候和水环境研究等四个方面总结了相关研究。结果表明：（1）乌鲁木齐河上游气候趋于暖湿。气温的升高很大程度上受冬季气温大幅度升高影响,气温对高山区冰川积雪的影响要大于降水;冬季负积温也加快了冻土的消融;气温和降水的变化导致乌鲁木齐河上游河段冰川后退加速,积雪融化、雪线上升,冻土活动层增厚。（2）乌鲁木齐河流域降水量和降水变化速率具有明显的垂直特征,在中高山地区降水量和降水变率较大;山区降水还具有年代际特征,20世纪90年代以来,山区降水量呈现增加趋势并促进了山区径流量的增加。（3）降水量和冰川融雪量的增加,很大程度上加大了乌鲁木齐河流域山区的径流量,使得出山口区域洪水灾害的发生频率增加。（4）同位素分析的运用对探索径流形成和转化的机理具有重要意义。树轮研究为乌鲁木齐河流域气候变化序列的重建提供了技术手段。今后,乌鲁木齐河水资源承载力、水循环过程和水污染问题,是区域实现生态环境建设和可持续发展的重要研究内容。     

APHRODITE降水数据驱动的融雪径流模拟

针对流域内气象观测站点稀少和融雪径流过程的特点,利用APHRODITE降水数据进行插值,应用日有效活动温度改进度日数;依据季节性冻土受有效活动积温影响的特点,建立有效活动积温与径流系数的关系,提高模型中融雪速率和径流系数的计算精度。结合气象、水文资料和MODIS遥感积雪产品,应用改进的融雪径流模型（SRM）对开都河流域2000年与2006年融雪期的径流进行了率定和验证模拟。改进模型在率定期和验证期的模拟结果远远优于用日平均温度作为度日数的结果。结果表明,用APHRODITE降水数据及改进的度日数和径流系数作为SRM模型参数输入,能够较好模拟开都河流域融雪径流过程,大大提高模型模拟精度。     

Climatic and hydrologic variability during the past millennium in the eastern Rocky Mountains and northern Great Plains of western Canada

Modelling of tree-ring δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O data from the Columbia Icefield area in the eastern Rocky Mountains of western Canada provides fuller understanding of climatic and hydrologic variability over the past 1000 yr in this region, based on reconstruction of changes in growth season atmospheric relative humidity (RH_grs), winter temperature (T_win) and the precipitation δ¹⁸O-T_win relation. The Little Ice Age (~ AD 1530s-1890s) is marked by low RH_grs and T_win and a δ¹⁸O-T_win relation offset from that of the present, reflecting enhanced meridional circulation and persistent influence of Arctic air masses. Independent proxy hydrologic evidence suggests that snowmelt sustained relatively abundant streamflow at this time in rivers draining the eastern Rockies. In contrast, the early millennium was marked by higher RH_grs and T_win and a δ¹⁸O-T_win relation like that of the 20th century, consistent with pervasive influence of Pacific air masses because of strong zonal circulation. Especially mild conditions prevailed during the “Medieval Climate Anomaly” ~ AD 1100-1250, corresponding with evidence for reduced discharge in rivers draining the eastern Rockies and extensive hydrological drought in neighbouring western USA.     

Dynamics and anthropogenic impacts of multiple karst flow systems in a mountainous area of South China

The Xiangxi River basin, South China, is a steep terrane with well-developed karst features and an important Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer. Meteoric water in this mountainous area features a mean δ¹⁸O elevation gradient of –2.4?‰/km. This gradient was used to estimate mean recharge elevations of 760 m for Shuimoxi (SMX) spring, 1,060 m for Xiangshuidong (XSD) spring, and 1,430 m for drill hole ZK03, indicating multiple flow paths in the Cambrian-Ordovician karst aquifer. Mean residence times of 230 and 320 days and ～2 years were estimated for these features, respectively, using the damped running average model that predicts the isotopic variations in groundwater from those in precipitation. Groundwater in the regional karst flow system has the longest residence time, the highest recharge elevation, the longest flow paths, the lowest addition of anthropogenic components, and the greatest amount of water–rock interaction as indicated by its higher dissolved solids, Mg²⁺ concentrations and Mg/Ca ratios than the springs. In contrast, the local and shallow karst flow systems respond rapidly to recharge events. Artificial tracer tests prove that these shallow karst systems can also quickly transmit anthropogenic contaminants, indicating that they are highly vulnerable to human impacts, which include the enrichment of NO₃ ^–. The intensity of water–rock interaction and groundwater vulnerability are mainly determined by the structure and dynamics of the multiple karst flow systems.     

Oxygen isotopes in synthetic goethite and a model for the apparent pH dependence of goethite-water O/O fractionation

Goethite synthesis experiments indicate that, in addition to temperature, pH can affect the measured value of the ¹⁸O/¹⁶O fractionation factor between goethite and water (α_G-W). A simple model was developed which expresses α_G-W in terms of kinetic parameters associated with the growth of goethite from aqueous solution. The model predicts that, at a particular temperature, the range of pH over which α_G-W changes as pH changes is expected to be comparatively small (∼3 pH “units”) relative to the range of pH values over which goethite can crystallize (pH from ∼1 to 14). Outside the range of sensitivity to pH, α_G-W is predicted to be effectively constant (for constant temperature) at either a low-pH α_G-W value or a high-pH α_G-W value. It also indicates that the values of α_G-W at high pH will be disequilibrium values. Values of α_G-W for goethite crystallized at low pH may approach, but probably do not attain, equilibrium values. For goethite synthesized at values of pH from ∼1 to 2, data from two different laboratories define the following equation for the temperature dependence of 1000 ln α_G-W (T in degrees Kelvin)

(IV)     

基于模块化建模方法的寒区水文过程模拟——在中国西北寒区的应用

中国西北高山、 高原广泛分布着冻土和积雪, 春季融雪和冻土融化是该地区重要的水文过程.基于模块化的寒区水文建模环境CRHM, 根据流域水文过程特征和观测数据约束, 选取描述不同寒区子水文过程的模块构建寒区水文模型, 并基于长期观测的两个典型寒区小流域来验证模块化的寒区水文模型.在冰沟流域, 主要模拟雪的积累/消融、 雪的升华、 融雪下渗和融雪径流过程. 结果显示: 冰沟流域积雪升华占降雪量(145.5 cm)的48%, 其中风吹雪引起的升华损失量(35 cm)占积雪升华(69 cm)的一半, 风速和辐射引起的积雪升华是该地区积雪物质平衡的重要组成; 构建的寒区水文模型可以再现春季积雪消融引起的径流过程.在左冒孔冻土流域, 主要模拟冻土下渗过程、 冻土坡面产流过程和土壤冻融对径流的影响. 结果显示: 构建的寒区水文模型可以捕捉到春季主要的冻土融化径流过程.两个流域的验证结果揭示: 模块化的建模方法在搭建模型结构的时候减少了模型的不确定性, 所以在未经率定的情况下, 具有在无资料和资料缺少地区模拟寒区水文要素和水文过程的能力.     

Biomarkers record environmental changes along an altitudinal transect in the wettest place on Earth

The combined application of plant wax δD (δD_wax) and branched glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (brGDGTs) has been suggested as proxy for paleo-elevation. In some of the altitudinal transects studied so far, nonlinear precipitation gradients, large variations in seasonality, soil and vegetation types introduced substantial amounts of scatter in the relationship between these proxies and altitude. To further evaluate the principal functioning of the proxies, δD_wax and brGDGTs were analysed in surface soils along an altitude gradient (from 28 m up to 1865 m a.s.l.) in Meghalaya, India. The transect experiences limited seasonal temperature variation and receives very high monsoonal precipitation along the whole elevation gradient. The δD_wax show a significant relation with altitude (r² = 0.72). The additional fits with stream water δD (r² = 0.72) and modelled precipitation δD (r² = 0.72) indicate that δD_wax tracks the altitude effect on precipitation. Also the brGDGT distribution shows a correlation with altitude, reflecting the decrease in temperature with higher elevation (r² = 0.65, or r² = 0.66 using the original and recalibrated methylation of branched tetraethers-cyclisation of branched tetraethers (MBT–CBT) proxy). Application of the original MBT–CBT calibration generates calculated air temperatures that overestimate measured air temperature by ∼6 °C, whereas temperatures similar to measured are obtained with the revised calibration. These results indicate that δD_wax and brGDGTs may faithfully and accurately track environmental changes with altitude for transects where seasonal and diurnal temperature variability is relatively limited. Furthermore, proxy application to locations that experience high rainfall increases the suitability as climatic indicators, as it excludes soil moisture availability as a limiting factor.     

A comparison of two models to predict soil moisture from remote sensing data of RADARSAT II

This study investigates the performance of empirical and semiempirical models to predict soil moisture from the data of RADARSAT II synthetic aperture radar (SAR) for the Yarmouk basin in Jordan. Data of SAR were obtained for May and June 2010 and were processed to obtain backscatter (σ ^o ) data for the study area. Results showed significant correlations between soil moisture content (m _v ) and horizontally polarized σ ^o , with coefficient of determination (R ²) of 0.64. The root mean square error for the SAR volumetric soil moisture content was 0.09 and 0.06 m³/m³ for the empirical and semiempirical regression models, respectively. Both models had different clustering patterns in the soil moisture maps in the study area. The spatial agreement between maps of soil moisture was in the range of 55 to 65 % when the maps were reclassified based on intervals of 5 % m _v for both models. In terms of soil moisture interval, both models showed that most of soil moisture changes between the two images (dates) were in the range of ±5 %. Some high differences in ?m _v were observed between the two models. These were mainly attributed to the non-inverted pixels in the soil moisture maps produced by the semiempirical model. Therefore, this model may be applied for a limited range of soil moisture prediction. The use of regression model could predict a wider range for soil moisture when compared with the semiempirical model. However, more work might be needed to improve the empirical model before scaling it up to the whole study area.     

干旱区融雪径流模拟的研究进展与展望

融雪径流模拟是干旱区水文水资源研究的热点问题,对干旱区春季融雪洪水风险评估和流域水资源管理至关重要。结合文献查询及资料分析,重点讨论了不同类型融雪径流模型的特征和发展情况,比较了不同融雪径流模型在干旱区一些典型河流的应用情况,并对其功能及优缺点进行了评估。结合对目前流域融雪径流模拟研究中存在的问题的分析,提出未来融雪径流模拟要注重提高数据分辨率的观点。借助多源遥感数据驱动获取更为精确的输入数据,在数据获取难度减小、精度提高的基础上山区融雪径流模拟将更多地以基于能量平衡的物理性模拟为主。模型的构建要充分考虑由气候变暖所带来的其它参数的变化,精确描述山区融雪过程,以提高对融雪径流的模拟精度。