A study on the seismic performance of steel‐reinforced concrete frame‐concrete core wall high‐rise mixed structure by large‐scale shaking table tests and numerical simulations

This paper reports a study for the seismic performance of one large‐scaled (1/15) model of 30‐story steel‐reinforced concrete frame‐concrete core wall mixed structure. The study was implemented by both shaking table tests, in which the similarity ratio for lateral and gravitational accelerations was kept to 1:1, and numerical nonlinear dynamic analysis. The test observations presented herein include story displacement, interstory drift, natural vibration periods, and final failure mode. The numerical analysis was performed to simulate the shaking table test procedure, and the numerically obtained responses were verified by the test results. On the basis of the numerical results, the progressions of structural stiffness, base shear, and overturning moment were investigated, and the distributions of base shear and overturning moment between frame and core wall were also discussed. The test demonstrates the seismic performance of the steel‐reinforced concrete frame‐core wall mixed structure and reveals the potential overturning failure mode for high rise structures. The nonlinear analysis results indicate that the peripheral frames could take more shear forces after core wall damaged under severe earthquakes. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Strengthening of moment‐resisting frame structures against near‐fault ground motion effects

Near‐fault ground motions with forward directivity are characterized by a large pulse. This pulse‐like motion may cause a highly non‐uniform distribution of story ductility demands for code‐compliant frame structures, with maximum demands that may considerably exceed the level of code expectations. Strengthening techniques for multi‐story frame structures are explored with the objective of reducing maximum drift demands. One option is to modify the code‐based SRSS distribution of story shear strength over the height by strengthening of the lower stories of the frame. The modified distribution reduces the maximum story ductility demand, particularly for weak and flexible structures. However, this strengthening technique is less effective for stiff structures, and is almost ineffective in cases in which the maximum demand occurs in the upper stories, i.e. strong and flexible structures. As an alternative, the benefits of strengthening frames with elastic and inelastic walls are evaluated. The effects of adding walls that are either fixed or hinged at the base are investigated. It is demonstrated that strengthening with hinged walls is very effective in reducing drift demands for structures with a wide range of periods and at various performance levels. Wall inelastic behavior only slightly reduces the benefits of strengthening with hinged walls.Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

最小剪力系数及其调整方法对超高层建筑地震响应的影响

超高层结构地震剪力响应由振型分解反应谱法得到的结果经常不能满足规定的最小剪力系数要求。为此,文章简述剪力系数的概念和调整方法,以具有不同剪力系数的两个模型对比分析结构弹性、弹塑性地震响应差异,探讨剪力系数对超高层结构地震响应的影响。以通过强度和刚度调整使最小剪力系数满足规范要求的两个模型,分析不同调整方法引起的结构响应的合理性。结果表明:满足最小剪力系数的结构的弹性基底剪力大、层间位移角较小,结构的弹塑性位移响应也较小,受力状态优于不满足最小剪力系数的结构,安全性得到了提高。结构弹性倾覆力矩需求和弹塑性基底剪力按刚度调整大于按强度调整;结构弹塑性最大顶点位移和层间位移角响应相差不大,但出现刚度大\,层间位移角也大的与抗震理论相悖的情况;在满足抗震要求的情况下,构件的受力状态则是按强度调整更优,构件截面更加经济合理。     

Cyclic tests on steel and concrete‐filled tube frames with Slit Walls

Cyclic loading tests were performed on three one‐storey steel frames and four three‐storey concrete‐filled tube (CFT) moment frames reinforced with a new type of earthquake‐resisting element consisting of a steel plate shear wall with vertical slits. In this shear wall system, the steel plate segments between the slits behave as a series of flexural links, which provide fairly ductile response without the need for heavy stiffening of the wall. The steel shear walls and the moment frames behaved in a ductile manner up to more than 4% drift without abrupt strength degradation or loss of axial resistance. Results of these tests and complementary analysis provide a basis for an equivalent brace model to be employed in commercially available frame analysis programs. Test and analytical results suggest that the horizontal force is carried by the bolts in the middle portion of the wall–frame connection, while the vertical forces coupled with the moment in the connection are resisted by the bolts in the edge portion of the connection, for which the friction bolts in the connection should be designed. When sufficient transverse stiffening is provided, full plastic strength and non‐degrading hysteretic behaviour can be achieved for this new type of shear wall. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of structural walls on the elastic–plastic earthquake responses of frame–wall buildings

Effects of structural walls on the elastic–plastic earthquake response of short- to medium-height reinforced concrete buildings were investigated. The analytical model consists of independent lumped mass systems representing walls and frames connected at each floor. The wall structure undergoes flexural as well as shear deformation and fails in shear at relatively small story drifts, the frames deforming only in shear. As a measure of structural damage, the ductility factor responses of frame structures were calculated for different combinations of base shear coefficients for the frames and walls. In buildings with relatively weak frames, the installation of structural walls did not improve the large plastic response of the frames up to the point where the walls were unfailed in shear and the ductility factors of the frame structure were suddenly reduced to a very small number. For relatively strong frames, however, the response displacements decreased gradually as the number of walls increased, whether or not the walls failed. Empirical formulas for the required base shear coefficients of the walls and frames which gave a target ductility factor response also were derived for two particular groups of accelerograms. These equations should be of practical use in designing frame-wall type buildings and in retrofitting damaged buildings. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A distributed parameter model of a frame pin‐supported wall structure

Many reinforced‐concrete frames collapse via a soft‐story mechanism during severe earthquakes. Such collapses are mainly attributed to concentrated deformation in a soft story. Deformation control is thus important in preventing collapse. The frame pin‐supported wall structure is a type of rocking structure that releases constraints at the bottom of the wall. Previous research has obtained good results for the deformation control of this type of structure. However, the interior forces and strength demands of the pin‐supported wall have not been systematically explored. In this paper, a distributed parameter model is developed to investigate the strength demand of the wall in a frame pin‐supported wall structure. In the model, the pin‐supported wall is simplified as a bending beam and the frame is simplified as a shear beam. The two beams are joined by distributed shear connectors, so that the shear force can be transferred at any location on the interface. The model can be solved using differential equations based on equilibrium and compatibility. The accuracy of the model is verified using SAP2000 (Computers and Structures Inc., Berkeley, CA, USA). Displacement distribution of the structure and distributions of the moment and shear force within the pin‐supported wall are obtained for two typical external force profiles. It is found that the pin‐supported wall can effectively reduce the drift concentration factor. Distributions of the displacement, moment, and shear force are closely correlated with the relative stiffness of the wall and frame. Finally, recommendations on the stiffness and strength of a pin‐supported wall are made. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dynamic collapse analysis for a reinforced concrete frame sustaining shear and axial failures

Shaking table test results from a one‐story, two‐bay reinforced concrete frame sustaining shear and axial failures are compared with nonlinear dynamic analyses using models developed for the collapse assessment of older reinforced concrete buildings. The models provided reasonable estimates of the overall frame response and lateral strength degradation; however, the measured drifts were underestimated by the models. Selected model parameters were varied to investigate the sensitivity of the calculated response to changes in the drift at shear failure, rate of shear strength degradation, and drift at axial failure. For the selected ground motion, the drift at shear failure and rate of shear strength degradation did not have a significant impact on the calculated peak drift. By incorporating shear and axial‐load failure models, the analytical model is shown to be capable of predicting the axial‐load failure for a hypothetical frame with three nonductile columns. Improvements are needed in drift demand estimates from nonlinear dynamic analysis if such analyses are to be used in displacement‐based performance assessments. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of brace stiffness on performance of structures with supplemental Maxwell model‐based brace–damper systems

Shear‐type buildings with Maxwell model‐based brace–damper systems are studied in this paper with a primary emphasis on the effects of brace stiffness. A single‐story building with a viscous damper installed on top of a Chevron‐brace is first investigated. Closed‐form solutions are derived for the simple structure, relating the brace stiffness and damper coefficient to the targeted reduction in response displacement or acceleration. For a given brace stiffness, the solution is minimized to give a set of formulae that will allow the optimal damper coefficient to be determined, assuring the desired performance. The model is subsequently extended to multistory buildings with viscous dampers installed on top of Chevron‐braces. For a targeted reduction in the mean square of the interstory drift, floor acceleration or base shear force, the minimum brace stiffness and optimal damper coefficients are obtained through an iterative procedure. The response reduction, which signifies the improved performance, is achieved by a combination of brace stiffness and viscous damper coefficients, unlike conventional approaches where damper coefficients are typically optimized independent of brace stiffnesses. Characteristics of multi‐degree‐of‐freedom systems are studied using a 2‐story and a 10‐story buildings where the effects of brace stiffness on the overall performance of the building can be quantified. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Seismic design and testing of the bottom vertical boundary elements in steel plate shear walls. Part 1: design methodology

This research investigates the seismic design method and the cyclic inelastic behavior of the bottom column, also called the vertical boundary element (VBE), in steel plate shear walls (SPSWs). This study consists of two parts. This Part 1 paper discusses the anticipated pushover responses for properly designed SPSWs and the possible inelastic responses of the bottom VBE at various levels of inter‐story drift. Considering both the tension field action of the infill panel and the sway action of the boundary frame, this study develops a simplified method to compute the flexural and shear demands in the bottom VBE. Based on the superposition method, this approach considers various plastic hinge forming locations at different levels of inter‐story drift. One of the key performance‐based design objectives is to ensure that the top ends of the bottom VBEs remain elastic when the SPSWs are subjected to the maximum considered earthquake. This paper presents the comprehensive design procedures for the bottom VBE. Furthermore, this study conducted cyclic performance evaluation tests of three full‐scale two‐story SPSWs at the Taiwan National Center for Research on Earthquake Engineering in 2011 to validate the effectiveness of the proposed design methods. The experimental program, cyclic inelastic responses of the SPSWs and bottom VBEs, and numerical simulations are presented in Part 2. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Seismic behavior of asymmetric RC wall buildings: principles and new deformation‐based design method

The seismic design of multi‐story buildings asymmetric in plan yet regular in elevation and stiffened with ductile RC structural walls is addressed. A realistic modeling of the non‐linear ductile behavior of the RC walls is considered in combination with the characteristics of the dynamic torsional response of asymmetric buildings. Design criteria such as the determination of the system ductility, taking into account the location and ductility demand of the RC walls, the story‐drift demand at the softer (most displaced) edge of the building under the design earthquake, the allowable ductility (ultimate limit state) and the allowable story‐drift (performance goals) are discussed. The definition of an eccentricity of the earthquake‐equivalent lateral force is proposed and used to determine the effective displacement profile of the building yet not the strength distribution under the design earthquake. Furthermore, an appropriate procedure is proposed to calculate the fundamental frequency and the earthquake‐equivalent lateral force. A new deformation‐based seismic design method taking into account the characteristics of the dynamic torsional response, the ductility of the RC walls, the system ductility and the story‐drift at the softer (most displaced) edge of the building is presented and illustrated with an example of seismic design of a multi‐story asymmetric RC wall building. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

等位移理论估计高层建筑结构非弹性地震反应的进一步研究

为进一步研究用等位移理论估计高层建筑结构非弹性地震反应,选用五个钢筋混凝土高层结构实例,输入二十条不同场地条件的地震波,采用结构弹性和非弹性地震时程反应分析方法,研究了结构弹性和非弹性最大顶点位移以及最大层间位移角之间的关系。提出可以直接用弹性最大顶点位移估计非弹性最大顶点位移。对于非弹性层间位移角反应,在中、弱非线陛阶段宜可直接用弹性反应结果估计,而在强非线性阶段则需进行一定修正。     

剪力墙结构层间位移计算方法探讨

规范对高层剪力墙结构层间位移进行限制时,没有考虑结构体系侧移模式不同的影响,这对以弯曲变形为主的结构会造成很大的误差,甚至得出一些与实际情况完全不相符的结论。针对这一问题,本文根据剪力墙结构的受力特点,将楼层位移分为有害位移和无害位移,将层间位移分为名义层间位移Δui和有害层间位移Δui~,用倒三角形分布水平荷载的等截面悬臂杆件的弯曲变形曲线作为剪力墙结构的近似侧移曲线,从理论上分析了剪力墙结构的名义层间位移、有害层间位移、层间相对转角以及截面的弯曲曲率之间的关系,给出有害层间位移的实用计算公式。最后,对比分析了控制剪力墙层间变形的几种不同方法,并通过算例分析验证了本文方法实用可行,与实际情况符合较好。     

Numerical study of a full‐scale six‐story reinforced concrete wall‐frame structure tested at E‐Defense

A full‐scale shake table test on a six‐story reinforced concrete wall frame structure was carried out at E‐Defense, the world's largest three‐dimensional earthquake simulation facility, in January 2006. Story collapse induced from shear failure of shear critical members (e.g., short columns and shear walls) was successfully produced in the test. Insights gained into the seismic behavior of a full‐scale specimen subjected to severe earthquake loads are presented in this paper. To reproduce the collapse process of the specimen and evaluate the ability of analytical tools to predict post‐peak behavior, numerical simulation was also conducted, modeling the seismic behavior of each member with different kinds of models, which differ primarily in their ability to simulate strength decay. Simulated results showed good agreement with the strength‐degrading features observed in post‐peak regions where shear failure of members and concentrated deformation occurred in the first story. The simulated results tended to underestimate observed values such as maximum base shear and maximum displacement. The effects of member model characteristics, torsional response, and earthquake load dimensions (i.e., three‐dimensional effects) on the collapse process of the specimen were also investigated through comprehensive dynamic analyses, which highlighted the following seismic characteristics of the full‐scale specimen: (i) a model that is incapable of simulating a specimen's strength deterioration is inadequate to simulate the post‐peak behavior of the specimen; (ii) the torsional response generated from uniaxial eccentricity in the longitudinal direction was more significant in the elastic range than in the inelastic range; and (iii) three‐dimensional earthquake loads (X–Y–Z axes) generated larger maximum displacement than any other loading cases such as two‐dimensional (X–Y or Y–Z axes) or one‐dimensional (Y axis only) excitation. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

带耗能腋撑竖向不规则短肢剪力墙结构减震性能分析

在不影响建筑使用空间前提下,提出在抗侧构件不连续处设置耗能腋撑以改善竖向不规则结构抗震性能。以底部大空间短肢剪力墙结构为研究对象,利用大型通用有限元程序ETABS研究耗能器类型与场地土对耗能腋撑工作性能和竖向不规则结构受力性能的影响。研究表明,黏滞型耗能腋撑对文中分析模型各楼层地震反应有较好的控制效果,对转换层处层间位移角与层剪力最大值减幅最大,分别为40.14%和15.66%,对顶层加速度与基底剪力峰值的最大减幅分别为16.06%和23.57%,黏滞型耗能腋撑最大能耗散输入结构能量的42%,而黏弹型耗能腋撑对结构的控制效果不理想;当地震震级较大、震中距较小时,耗能腋撑对坚硬与软弱场地土的模型结构控制作用相差不大,减震位移比在转换层处达到最小值0.76;随着震级减小或震中距增大,耗能腋撑对该模型结构的控制作用随场地土变硬而逐渐增强,其减震位移比介于0.68～0.74之间。     

Multiple‐slider surfaces bearing for seismic retrofitting of frame structures with soft first stories

A new isolation interface is proposed in this study to retrofit existing buildings with inadequate soft stories as well as new structures to be constructed with soft first story intended for architectural or functional purposes. The seismic interface is an assembly of bearings set in parallel on the top of the first story columns: the multiple‐slider bearings and rubber bearings. The multiple‐slider bearing is a simple sliding device consisting of one horizontal and two inclined plane sliding surfaces based on polytetrafluoroethylene and highly polished stainless steel interface at both ends set in series. A numerical example of a five‐story reinforced concrete shear frame with soft first story is considered and analyzed to demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed isolation system in reducing the ductility demand and damage in the structure while maintaining the superstructure above the bearings to behave nearly in the elastic range with controlled bearing displacement. Comparative study with the conventional system as well as various isolation systems such as rubber bearing interface and resilient sliding isolation is carried out. Moreover, an optimum design procedure for the multiple‐slider bearing is proposed through the trade‐off between the maximum bearing displacement and the first story ductility demand ratio. The results of extensive numerical analysis verify the effectiveness of the multiple‐slider bearing in minimizing the damage from earthquake and protecting the soft first story from excessively large ductility demand. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Coupled shear‐bending formulation for seismic analysis of stacked wood shear wall systems

A summary of the development of a new coupled shear‐bending model for analysis of stacked wood shear walls and multi‐story wood‐frame buildings is presented in this paper. The model focuses on dynamic response of light‐frame wood structures under seismic excitation. The formulation is intended to provide a more versatile option than present pure shear models in that the new model is capable of accurately capturing the overall lateral response of each story diaphragm and separates the inter‐story shear deformation and the deformation associated with rotation of the diaphragm due to rod elongation, which is an analogue to the bending deformation in an Euler–Bernoulli beam model. Modeling the coupling of bending and shear deformation is shown to provide more accurate representation of stacked shear wall system behavior than a pure shear model, particularly for the upper stories in the assembly. The formulation is coupled with the newly developed evolutionary parameter hysteretic model for wood shear walls. Existing data from a shake table test of an isolated three‐story wood shear wall were used to verify the accuracy of the model prediction. The numerical results agreed very well with shake table test measurements. The influence of a continuous rod hold‐down system on the dynamic behavior of the three‐story stacked wood shear wall was also successfully simulated. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Shake-table testing of a self-centering precast reinforced concrete frame with shear walls

The seismic performance of a self-centering precast reinforced concrete (RC) frame with shear walls was investigated in this paper. The lateral force resistance was provided by self-centering precast RC shear walls (SPCW), which utilize a combination of unbonded prestressed post-tensioned (PT) tendons and mild steel reinforcing bars for flexural resistance across base joints. The structures concentrated deformations at the bottom joints and the unbonded PT tendons provided the self-centering restoring force. A 1/3-scale model of a five-story self-centering RC frame with shear walls was designed and tested on a shake-table under a series of bi-directional earthquake excitations with increasing intensity. The acceleration response, roof displacement, inter-story drifts, residual drifts, shear force ratios, hysteresis curves, and local behaviour of the test specimen were analysed and evaluated. The results demonstrated that seismic performance of the test specimen was satisfactory in the plane of the shear wall; however, the structure sustained inter-story drift levels up to 2.45%. Negligible residual drifts were recorded after all applied earthquake excitations. Based on the shake-table test results, it is feasible to apply and popularize a self-centering precast RC frame with shear walls as a structural system in seismic regions.     

Seismic response of steel frame structures with hybrid passive control systems

The concept of the hybrid passive control system is studied analytically by investigating the seismic response of steel frame structures. Hybrid control systems consist of two different passive elements combined into a single device or system. The hybrid systems investigated in this research consist of a rate‐dependent damping device paired with a rate‐independent energy dissipation element. The innovative configurations exploit individual element strengths and offset their weaknesses through multiphased behavior. A nine‐story, five‐bay steel moment‐frame was used for the analysis. Six different seismic resisting systems were analyzed and compared. The conventional systems included a special moment‐resisting frame (SMRF) and a dual SMRF–buckling‐restrained brace (BRB) system. The final four configurations are hybrid passive systems. The different hybrid configurations utilize a BRB and either a high‐damping rubber damper or viscous fluid damper. The analyses were run in the form of an incremental dynamic analysis. Several damage measures were calculated, including maximum roof drift, base shear, and total roof acceleration. The results demonstrate the capability of hybrid passive control systems to improve structural response compared with conventional lateral systems and to be effective for performance‐based seismic design. Each hybrid configuration improved some aspect of structural response with some providing benefits for multiple damage measures. The multiphased nature provides improved response for frequent and severe seismic events. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Strength,stiffness and cyclic deformation capacity of RC frames converted into walls by infilling with RC

In seismic retrofitting of concrete buildings, frame bays are converted into reinforced concrete (RC) walls by infilling the space between the frame members with RC of a thickness of not more than their width. The cyclic behavior of the resulting wall depends on the connection between the RC infill and the surrounding RC members. The paper uses the results from 56 cyclic tests on such composite walls to express their properties in terms of the geometry, the reinforcement and the connection. Properties addressed are: (a) the yield moment at the story base; (b) the secant-to-yield-point stiffness over the shear span of the wall in a story; (c) the deflection at flexural failure in cyclic loading; (d) the cyclic shear resistance, including a sliding shear failure mode. Separate models are given for squat walls failing in shear and for those where the top of the column shears-off. The proposals are modifications of models developed in the past for monolithic RC walls from several hundred cyclic tests; blind application of these latter models as though the walls were monolithic gives, in general, unsafe predictions. By contrast, the diagonal compression strut approach in ASCE41-06 is safe-sided, but gives unacceptably large prediction scatter.     

Boundary frame contribution in coupled and uncoupled steel plate shear walls

The steel plate shear wall (SPSW) system is a robust option for earthquake resistance due to the strength, stiffness, ductility and energy dissipation that it provides. Although thin infill plates are efficient for resisting lateral loads, boundary frames that are proportioned based on capacity design requirements add significant structural weight that appears to be one of the factors limiting the use of the system in practice. An alternate configuration, the SPSW with coupling (SPSW‐WC), was explored recently as an option for increasing architectural flexibility while also improving overall system economy and seismic performance. The SPSW‐WC, which extensively employs flexural boundary frame contribution, has shown promise in analytical, numerical and experimental studies, but recent research on uncoupled SPSWs suggests that boundary frame contribution should not be considered for carrying seismic design shear. As a result, in the present study, boundary frame contribution in SPSWs was explored with detailed three‐dimensional finite element models, which were validated against large‐scale SPSW‐WC tests. Six‐story systems were considered, and the study matrix included single and double uncoupled SPSWs along with coupled SPSWs that had various degrees of coupling. Variations in design methodology were also explored. The modeling framework was employed to conduct static monotonic and cyclic pushover analyses and dynamic response history analysis. These analyses demonstrate the beneficial effect of coupling in SPSWs and illustrate the need to consider boundary frame contribution in design of coupled SPSWs. In addition, sharing design shear between the infill plate and the boundary frame is more generally shown to not be detrimental if this sharing is done in the design stage based on elastic analysis and the resulting boundary frame provides adequate secondary strength and stiffness following infill plate yielding. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.