A New Application of Unsupervised Learning to Nighttime Sea Fog Detection

This paper presents a nighttime sea fog detection algorithm incorporating unsupervised learning technique. The algorithm is based on data sets that combine brightness temperatures from the 3.7 μm and 10.8 μm channels of the meteorological imager (MI) onboard the Communication, Ocean and Meteorological Satellite (COMS), with sea surface temperature from the Operational Sea Surface Temperature and Sea Ice Analysis (OSTIA). Previous algorithms generally employed threshold values including the brightness temperature difference between the near infrared and infrared. The threshold values were previously determined from climatological analysis or model simulation. Although this method using predetermined thresholds is very simple and effective in detecting low cloud, it has difficulty in distinguishing fog from stratus because they share similar characteristics of particle size and altitude. In order to improve this, the unsupervised learning approach, which allows a more effective interpretation from the insufficient information, has been utilized. The unsupervised learning method employed in this paper is the expectation–maximization (EM) algorithm that is widely used in incomplete data problems. It identifies distinguishing features of the data by organizing and optimizing the data. This allows for the application of optimal threshold values for fog detection by considering the characteristics of a specific domain. The algorithm has been evaluated using the Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) vertical profile products, which showed promising results within a local domain with probability of detection (POD) of 0.753 and critical success index (CSI) of 0.477, respectively.     

Mesoscale numerical simulation study of warm fog dissipation by salt particles seeding

Based on the dynamic framework of WRF and Morrison 2-moment explicit cloud scheme, a salt-seeding scheme was developed and used to simulate the dissipation of a warm fog event during 6–7 November 2009 in the Beijing and Tianjin area. The seeding effect and its physical mechanism were studied. The results indicate that when seeding fog with salt particles sized 80 μm and at a quantity of 6 gm~(-2) at the fog top, the seeding effect near the ground surface layer is negative in the beginning period, and then a positive seeding effect begins to appear at 18 min, with the best effect appearing at 21 min after seeding operation. The positive effect can last about 35 min. The microphysical mechanism of the warm fog dissipation is because of the evaporation due to the water vapor condensation on the salt particles and coalescence with salt particles.The process of fog water coalescence with salt particles contributed mostly to this warm fog dissipation. Furthermore, two series of sensitivity experiments were performed to study the seeding effect under different seeding amounts and salt particles sizes. The results show that seeding fog with salt particles sized of 80 μm can have the best seeding effect, and the seeding effect is negative when the salt particle size is less than 10 μm. For salt particles sized 80 μm, the best seeding effect, with corresponding visibility of 380 m, can be achieved when the seeding amount is 30 g m~(-2).     

Acidic deposition to forests: The 1985 chemistry of high elevation fog (CHEF) project

Abstract

The literature supporting significant water deposition directly from cloud and fog to the earth's surface is reviewed and previous aircraft and surface measurements of the acidity of this water are summarized. An overview of recent work on forest decline is given and an American (Mountain Cloud Chemistry Project) and Canadian (Chemistry of High Elevation Fog) program to look at the chemical deposition by clouds to high elevation forests, is‐described.

Preliminary measurements in late 1985 on two mountains in Quebec indicate that fog (cloud on the mountain) water pH values (≈3.8) near the summits (850–970 m) are much lower than precipitation pH values (≈ 4.3) at the same location; the summits are estimated to be in cloud 44% of the year with lower percentages at lower elevations; an estimate of total annual fog water deposition (77 cm) near the summit is similar to the average annual precipitation in Quebec; the estimated fog water hydrogen ion deposition (135 meq m^?2) is about three times that from the precipitation; the precipitation pH values may be lower (4.1 ver sus 4.3) at lower elevations with precipitation amounts perhaps 50% higher at higher elevations.     

Fog detection using geostationary satellite data: Temporally continuous algorithm

A fog detection algorithm that uses geostationary satellite data has been developed and tested. This algorithm focuses on continuous fog detection since temporal discontinuities, especially at dawn and dusk, are a major problem with current fog detection algorithms that use satellite imagery data. This is because the spectral radiance at 3.7 μm contains overlapping emissive and reflectance components. In order to determine the radiance at 3.7 μm under fog conditions, radiative transfer model simulations were performed. The results showed that the radiance at 3.7 μm obviously varies with the solar zenith angle, and the brightness temperature differences between 3.7 μm and 10.8 μm are completely dissimilar between day and night (positive and varying with the angle during the daytime, but negative and constant at night). In this algorithm, a dynamic threshold is used as a function of the solar zenith angle. Moreover, additional criteria such as infrared, split-window channels, and a water vapor channel are used to remove high-level clouds. Also, the visible reflectance (0.67 μm) channel is used in the daytime algorithm because visible channel images are very practical for confirming a fog area with the high reflectivity and the smooth texture. The clear-sky visible reflectance for the previous 15 days was also employed to eliminate the surface effect that appeared during dawn and dusk. As the results, fog areas were estimated continuously, allowing the lifecycle of the fog system, from its development to decline, to appear obviously in the resulting images. Moreover, the estimated fog areas matched well with surface observations, except in a high latitude region that was covered by thin cirrus clouds.     

Local Meteorological and Synoptic Characteristics of Fogs Formed over Incheon International Airport in the West Coast of Korea

Fogs observed over Incheon international airport (IIA) in the west coast of Korea from January 2002 to August 2006 are classified into categories of coastal fog, cold sea fog, and warm sea fog based on the areal extent of the fogs and the difference between the air temperature (T) and the SST, i.e., cold sea fog if TSST = T-SST>0^oC and warm sea fog if TSST <0^oC. The numbers of coastal, cold, and warm sea fog cases are 64, 26, and 9. Coastal fogs form most frequently in winter, while cold sea fogs occur mostly in summer and warm sea fogs are observed from January to May but not in November and December. On average the air gets colder by 1.6^oC during the three hours leading up to the coastal fog formation, and an additional cooling of 1.1^oC occurs during the fog. The change in the dew point temperature (T_d) is minimal except during the fog (0.6^oC). Decreases in T for the cold and warm sea fogs are relatively smaller. The average T_d is higher than SST during the cold sea fog periods but this T_d is more than 4^oC higher than that for the corresponding non-fog days, suggesting that cold sea fogs be formed by the cooling of already humid air (i.e., T_d>SST). Increases of T_d are significant during the warm sea fog periods (1.4^oC), implying that efficient moisture supply is essential to warm sea fog formation. Four major synoptic patterns are identified in association with the observed fogs. The most frequent is a north Pacific high that accounts for 38% of cases. Surface or upper inversions are present in 77%, 69%, and 81% of the fog periods for coastal, cold, and warm sea fogs, respectively.     

Spatial gridding of daily maximum and minimum 2 m temperatures supported by satellite observations

The usefulness of two remotely sensed variables, land surface temperature (LST) and cloud cover (CC), as predictors for the gridding of daily maximum and minimum 2 m temperature (T _min/T _max) was assessed. Four similar gridding methods were compared, each of which applied regression kriging to capture the spatial variation explained by the predictors used; however, both methods differed in the interpolation steps performed and predictor combinations used. The robustness of the gridding methods was tested for daily observations in January and July in the period 2009–2011 and in two different regions: the Central European region (CER) and the Iberian Peninsula (IP). Moreover, the uncertainty estimate provided by each method was evaluated using cross-validation. The regression analyses for both regions demonstrated the high predictive skills of LST for T _min and T _max on daily and monthly timescales (and lower predictive skills of CC). The application of LST as a predictor considerably improved the gridding performance over the IP region in July; however, there was only a slight improvement over the CER region. CC reduced the loss of spatial variability in the interpolated daily T _min/T _max values over the IP region. The interpolation skill was mainly controlled by the station density, but also depended on the complexity of the terrain. LST was shown to be of particular value for very low station densities (1 station per 50,000 km²). Analyses with artificially decreasing station densities showed that even in the case of very low station densities, LST allows the determination of useful regression functions.     

An observational and modeling study of a sea fog event over the Yellow Sea on 1 August 2003

A dense sea fog episode that occurred near the coastal city of Qingdao in the Shandong Peninsula of China on 1 August 2003 is investigated by using all of the available observational data and high-resolution modeling results from the Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (RAMS). This fog event reduced the horizontal visibility to be less than 60 m in some locations and caused several traffic accidents locally. In this paper, all of the available observational data, including visible satellite imagery of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)-9 and MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), objectively reanalyzed Final Analysis (FNL) data issued by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), sounding data at the Qingdao and Dalian stations, and the latest 4.4 version of the RAMS model, were employed to study this sea fog case. We begin with the analyses of the environmental conditions of the sea fog event, including the large-scale conditions, the difference between T _2m (air temperature at 2 m altitude) and sea surface temperature (SST), and the atmospheric sounding profiles of the two stations. The characteristics of this sea fog event was documented by using visible satellite imagery of GOES-9 and MODIS. In order to better understand the fog formation mechanism, a high-resolution RAMS model of dimensions 4 km × 4 km was designed, which was initialized and validated by FNL data. A 54-h modeling period that started from 18 UTC 31 July 2003 reproduced the main characteristics of this sea fog event. The simulated lower visibility area agreed well with the sea fog area identified from the satellite imagery. It is shown that advection cooling effect plays a significant role in the fog formation.     

Spatial dependence of diurnal temperature range trends on precipitation from 1950 to 2004

This paper analyzes the spatial dependence of annual diurnal temperature range (DTR) trends from 1950–2004 on the annual climatology of three variables: precipitation, cloud cover, and leaf area index (LAI), by classifying the global land into various climatic regions based on the climatological annual precipitation. The regional average trends for annual minimum temperature (T _min) and DTR exhibit significant spatial correlations with the climatological values of these three variables, while such correlation for annual maximum temperature (T _max) is very weak. In general, the magnitude of the downward trend of DTR and the warming trend of T _min decreases with increasing precipitation amount, cloud cover, and LAI, i.e., with stronger DTR decreasing trends over drier regions. Such spatial dependence of T _min and DTR trends on the climatological precipitation possibly reflects large-scale effects of increased global greenhouse gases and aerosols (and associated changes in cloudiness, soil moisture, and water vapor) during the later half of the twentieth century.     

Cloud/Fog Water Chemistry at a High Elevation Site in South Korea

Cloud/fog water samples were collected at Daekwanreung (840 m msl), a ridge site, in South Korea, from March 2002 to September 2003, by using a Caltech type, self fabricated active strand cloud water collector. The pH, electrical conductivity and major ion concentrations were analyzed. The cloud water pH ranged from 3.6 to 6.8 with an average of 5.2, which was close to the atmospheric neutral point. However, the pH calculated from average concentrations of H+ was 4.7, indicating the cloud/fog water was weakly acidified. SO₄ ²⁻, NO₃ ⁻ and NH₄ ⁺ are predominant ions of which average concentrations were 203.1, 128.1, and 211.7 μeq⋅L⁻¹, respectively. Samples were categorized into four groups by applying 48-hour back trajectory analysis, using the HYbrid Single-Particle Largrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model. Chemical compositions for the four cases significantly differed from each other. For air masses transported from the East Sea (group E), sea salt concentrations, including Na⁺, Cl⁻ Mg²⁺, were relatively high. Principal acidifying pollutants, such as NO₃ ⁻ and nss-SO₄ ²⁻, significantly increased in the case of air masses transported from the Northeast Asian continent through North Korea (group N) and air masses from the Seoul metropolitan area (group W). However, the mean pH of group N was the highest while the mean pH of group W was the lowest. This suggests that most NO₃ ⁻ and nss-SO₄ ²⁻ in cloud/fog water was neutralized by ammonia and calcium compounds under the influence of air masses transported from Northeast Asia. N/S ratio for the group W was significantly higher than those for the other three groups, suggesting nitrogen species transported from the Seoul metropolitan area contributed to acidification of cloud/fog water at Daekwanreung. Principle Component analysis (PCA) was applied to the cloud/fog water data for presenting characteristics in the four different categories.     

Cloud drop spectra at different levels and with respect to cloud thickness and rain

Measurements on drop size were made in cumulus clouds over Pune (inland region) during the summer monsoon seasons. In this paper, the measurements of the cloud drop spectra made in non-raining clouds at different levels and for different thickness have been studied. Also, those on the days with rain and with no rain (the rain being observed within the clouds) have been compared. The average spectra broadened with height. The concentration of drops >50 μm (N_L), liquid water content (LWC), mean volume diameter (MVD) and dispersion increased with height. The concentration of drops <20 μm (N_S) and total concentration (N_T) decreased with height. The spectra were broader, while N_S and N_T are smaller and the other parameters are greater for thicker clouds as compared to those for thinner. The spectra were broader, while N_S and N_T are smaller and the other parameters are greater on the days with rain with respect to those on the days with no rain. The distributions were bimodal at higher levels, for thicker clouds and on the days with rain, while they were unimodal at lower levels, for thinner clouds and on the days with no rain. The variations of the cloud drop spectra, preceding rain, at initial stage of rain and following rain are discussed.     

Study of seasonal variation of PM2.5 concentration associated with meteorological parameters at residential sites in Delhi,India

The seasonal variation of particulate matter and its relationship with meteorological parameters were measured at five different residential sites in Delhi. Sampling was carried out for one year including all three seasons (summer, monsoon, and winter). The yearly average concentration of particulate matter (PM_2.5) was 135.16 ± 41.34 µg/m³. The highest average values were observed in winter (208.44 ± 43.67 µg/m³) and the lowest during monsoon season (80.29 ± 39.47 µg/m³). The annual average concentration of PM_2.5 was found to be the highest at the Mukherjee Nagar site (242.16 µg/m³ ) during the winter and lowest at (Jawaharlal Nehru University) JNU (35.65 µg/m³) during the monsoon season. The strongest correlation between PM mass and a meteorological parameter was a strong negative correlation with temperature (R2=0.55). All other parameters were weakly correlated (R2<0.2) with PM mass.

     

DETECTION OF DAYTIME FOG IN SOUTH CHINA SEA USING MODIS DATA

Based on a current fog detection theory, a multiband threshold method for MODIS data was put forward to detect daytime fog in the South China Sea. It used Bands 1, 2, 18, 20 and 31 of MODIS data to separate fog from the cloud and the sea surface. The digital detection indexes were as follows. If RB1<20%, RB2<20% and RB1>RB2, the pixel was identified to be the sea surface. If RB1>55%, RB2>55% and TB31<273 K, the pixel was identified to be a middle- and high-level cloud. If IFC>20, the pixel was classified to be sea fog. The method was verified with sea fog data observed from the coastal region of Guangdong during January-April 2011. Out of the 13 samples of satellite detection, nine were consistent with the surface observations, three were identified to be low-level the cloud according to the satellite detection but fog according to the surface observations, and only one sample was identified to be the ocean surface by the satellite detection but fog by the surface observations. Because the MODIS data cannot penetrate the cloud or fog, the model was designed for a single field of view which had only one layer of cloud or fog. It can accurately distinguish fog which is not covered by the cloud, but it identifies fog as cloud if the former is covered by a cloud. Generally speaking, the model is effective and feasible.     

基于旋翼无人机观测的雾天和霾天VOCs垂直分布特征研究

为研究雾和霾天气下VOCs时空变化特征,于2020年11月19 日—2021年1月15日在江苏省东海国家气象观测站进行为期58 d的外场观测试验。利用自主研发的多旋翼无人机捕获2次辐射雾和2次霾天气过程,获得气温、气压、相对湿度、风向、风速、VOCs、O₃等7种要素100多条垂直廓线。结果表明:时间上,霾过程夜间VOCs体积浓度(0.225~0.253 ppm(parts per million, 1 ppm=10^-6))明显高于白天(0.191~0.205 ppm),雾形成前体积浓度(0.121~0.239 ppm)显著高于雾过程(0.056~0.209 ppm)。雾过程中VOCs体积浓度与雾强度变化相反,雾层高度与VOCs体积浓度剧烈变化高度一致,雾层(<200 m)中VOCs体积浓度(0.172~0.178 ppm)明显减小,显著低于雾形成前(0.195~0.240 ppm),雾层以上浓度变化大,雾结束后1 h内保持雾过程中分布特点。雾对逆温层中的水溶性污染物有清除作用,VOCs体积浓度和O₃质量浓度均下降。     

Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) concentration in the Brazilian northeast semi-arid region: the influence of local circulation

Ground-based aerosol instrumentation covering particle size diameters from 25 nm to 32 µm was deployed to determine aerosol concentration and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)-activation properties at water vapor supersaturations in the range of S = 0.20–1.50 % in the remote Brazilian northeast semi-arid region (NEB) in coastal (maritime) and continental (inland) regimes. The instruments measured aerosol number concentration and activation spectra for CCN and revealed that aerosol properties are sensitive with respect to the sources as a function of the local wind circulation system. The observations show that coastal aerosol total number concentrations are above 3,000 cm^?3 on average, exhibiting concentration peaks depending on the time of the day in a consistent daily pattern. The variation on aerosol concentration has also influences on the fraction of particles active as CCN. At 1.0 % water vapor supersaturation, the fraction can reach as high as 80 %. Inland aerosol total concentrations were about 1,800–1,900 cm^?3 and did not show much diurnal variation. The fraction of particles active as CCN observed inland depend on the history of the air masses, and was much higher when air masses were originated over the sea. It was found that (NH₄)₂SO₄ and NaCl are the major soluble inorganic fraction of the aerosols at the coast. The major fraction of NaCl was present in the coarse mode, while ammonium sulfate dominates the inorganic fraction at the submicron range, with about 10 % of the total aerosol mass at 0.32 µm. Inorganic compounds are almost absent in particles with sizes around 0.1 μm. The study suggests that the air masses with high concentration of CCN originate at the sea. The feasible explanation lies in the fact that the NEB’s beaches have a particular morphology that produces a wide surf zone and creates a large load of aerosols when combined with strong and permanent winds of the region.     

Seasonal inhomogeneity of soot particles over the central Indo-Gangetic Plains,India: Influence of meteorology

Black carbon (BC) particles play a unique and important role in earth’s climate system. BC was measured (in-situ) in the central part of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) at Varanasi, which is a highly populated and polluted region due to its topography and extensive emission sources. The annual mean BC mass concentration was 8.92 ± 7.0 µg m ^-3, with 34% of samples exceeding the average value. Seasonally, BC was highest during the post-monsoon and winter periods (approximately 18 µg m ^-3) and lower in the premonsoon/ monsoon seasons (approximately 6 µg m ^-3). The highest frequency (approximately 46%) observed for BC mass was in the interval from 5 to 10 µg m ^-3. However, during the post-monsoon season, the most common values (approximately 23%) were between 20 and 25 µg m ^-3. The nighttime concentrations of BC were approximately twice as much as the daytime values because of lower boundary layer heights at nighttime. The Ångström exponent was significantly positively correlated (0.55) with ground-level BC concentrations, indicating the impact of BC on the columnar aerosol properties. The estimated mean absorption Ångström exponent was 1.02 ± 0.08 µg m ^-3, indicating that the major source of BC was from fossil fuel combustion. Significant negative correlations between BC mass and meteorological parameters indicate a pronounced effect of atmospheric dynamics on the BC mass in this region. The highest mean BC mass concentration (18.1 ± 6.9 µg m ^-3) as a function of wind speed was under calm wind conditions (38% of the time).     

Quantitative reconstruction of the last interglacial vegetation and climate based on the pollen record from Lake Baikal, Russia

Changes in mean temperature of the coldest (T _c) and warmest month (T _w), annual precipitation (P _ann) and moisture index (α) were reconstructed from a continuous pollen record from Lake Baikal, Russia. The pollen sequence CON01-603-2 (53°57′N, 108°54′E) was recovered from a 386 m water depth in the Continent Ridge and dated to ca. 130–114.8 ky BP. This time interval covers the complete last interglacial (LI), corresponding to MIS 5e. Results of pollen analysis and pollen-based quantitative biome reconstruction show pronounced changes in the regional vegetation throughout the record. Shrubby tundra covered the area at the beginning of MIS 5e (ca. 130–128 ky), consistent with the end of the Middle Pleistocene glaciation. The late glacial climate was characterised by low winter and summer temperatures (T _c ~ −38 to −35°C and T _w~11–13°C) and low annual precipitation (P _ann~300 mm). However, the wide spread of tundra vegetation suggests rather moist environments associated with low temperatures and evaporation (reconstructed α~1). Tundra was replaced by boreal conifer forest (taiga) by ca. 128 ky BP, suggesting a transition to the interglacial. Taiga-dominant phase lasted until ca. 117.4 ky BP, e.g. about 10 ky. The most favourable climate conditions occurred during the first half of the LI. P _ann reached 500 mm soon after 128 ky BP. However, temperature changed more gradually. Maximum values of T _c ~ −20°C and T _w~16–17°C are reconstructed from about 126 ky BP. Conditions became gradually colder after ca. 121 ky BP. T _c dropped to ~ −27°C and T _w to ~15°C by 119.5 ky BP. The reconstructed increase in continentality was accompanied by a decrease in P _ann to ~400–420 mm. However, the climate was still humid enough (α~0.9) to support growth of boreal evergreen conifers. A sharp turn towards a dry climate is reconstructed after ca. 118 ky BP, causing retreat of forest and spread of cool grass-shrub communities. Cool steppe dominated the vegetation in the area between ca. 117.5 ky and 114.8 ky BP, suggesting the end of the interglacial and transition to the last glacial (MIS 5d). Shift to the new glaciation was characterised by cool and very dry conditions with T _c ~ −28 to −30°C, T _w~14–15°C, P _ann~250 mm and α~0.5.     

Pollutant concentrations in fog and low cloud water at selected sites of the Czech Republic

In this paper, the basic composition of fog and low cloud water are presented, resulting from the analyses of water samples from 111 fog/cloud events. The samples were collected at five sites located in various regions of the Czech Republic. Two sampling sites are in mountainous regions and three sites represent various urban areas. The mountain stations are located in two regions of the Czech Republic with different industry types. At all the sites, active fog collectors were employed. In the water samples, the conductivity, acidity (pH), cations (H⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, NH₄⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺) and anions (F⁻, Cl⁻, NO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻) were determined.A mean pH value of about 4.5 was obtained at mountain sites whereas the measurements in urban areas showed mean pH values from 4.9 to 6.4. The mean conductivity values in the samples from the two mountain stations were 137 and 191.5 μS cm⁻¹. The samples from urban sites showed mean values between 127.7 and 654.4 μS cm⁻¹. The maximum concentration means for the three dominant pollutants (expressed by the ratio mountain sites/urban sites) are 32.9/99.6 mg l⁻¹ for NO₃⁻, 32.5/192.9 mg l⁻¹ for SO₄²⁻ and 18.5/52.7 mg l⁻¹ for NH₄⁺. As expected, we found higher ion concentrations in the northern part of the Czech Republic where larger numbers of lignite-burning power plants, chemical factories and opencast lignite mines are located. A decrease in ion concentrations was observed at higher altitude sites, probably reflecting at least in part higher liquid water contents at these locations.     

A new approach to identify the sensitivity and importance of physical parameters combination within numerical models using the Lund–Potsdam–Jena (LPJ) model as an example

Daily global solar irradiation (R _s) is one of the main inputs in environmental modeling. Because of the lack of its measuring facilities, high-quality and long-term data are limited. In this research, R _s values were estimated based on measured sunshine duration and cloud cover of our synoptic meteorological stations in central and southern Iran during 2008, 2009, and 2011. Clear sky solar irradiation was estimated from linear regression using extraterrestrial solar irradiation as the independent variable with normalized root mean square error (NRMSE) of 4.69 %. Daily R _s was calibrated using measured sunshine duration and cloud cover data under different sky conditions during 2008 and 2009. The 2011 data were used for model validation. According to the results, in the presence of clouds, the R _s model using sunshine duration data was more accurate when compared with the model using cloud cover data (NRMSE = 11. 69 %). In both models, with increasing sky cloudiness, the accuracy decreased. In the study region, more than 92 % of sunshine durations were clear or partly cloudy, which received close to 95 % of total solar irradiation. Hence, it was possible to estimate solar irradiation with a good accuracy in most days with the measurements of sunshine duration.     

基于多源卫星资料的中国地区云宏微观特征研究

利用2007—2016年国际卫星云气候计划（International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project,ISCCP）、云和地球辐射能量系统（Clouds and the Earth''s Radiant Energy System,CERES）和中分辨率成像光谱仪（Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer,MODIS）卫星反演云产品,对比分析了不同数据反演的中国地区云系结构的宏微观特征,并采用复合评价指标定量评估了不同数据之间时间和空间上的一致性。结果表明：三套卫星数据都能较好地反演出中国地区总云量呈南高北低、东高西低、夏高冬低的分布特征,但通过比较时间技巧（Temporal Skill,S_T）及空间技巧（Spatial Skill,S_S）复合评价指标及其各项分量发现,与MODIS相比,CERES与ISCCP数据反演的总云量时间序列演变特征明显更为一致,且其评分均有南方优于北方,夏季优于冬季的特征;进一步分析不同高度云量的S_T评分发现,CERES和ISCCP两套数据在南方地区的总云量差异主要来自于低云量的绝对偏差,而北方地区的偏差则同时存在于低云和中云;对比分析MODIS和CERES反演的云滴有效半径发现,高云对应的冰相云一致性较高,而中低云相对应的液相云的偏差则有夏季高于冬季的规律。针对夏季液相和冰相云滴粒径及概率密度分析则表明,相比CERES数据,MODIS对夏季液水和冰水粒子的有效半径在不同地区均有不同程度的高估,液（冰）水谱宽则更宽（窄）。     

Observations of precipitating convective systems at 92 and 183 GHz: Aircraft results

Summary High spatial resolution data from an airborne microwave imaging radiometer operating at 92 and 183 GHz (0.32 and 0.16 cm wavelengths) are compared with ground-based radar data for a series of observations of precipitating convective systems. An inverse relationship between microwave brightness temperature (T _B ) and radar-derived rain rate (RR) is observed. Differences in the empirical curves between midlatitude and tropical cloud systems are related to the differing microphysical and dynamical environments.ColdT _B features in the aircraft images are collocated with high reflectivity values in the radar data. Over a water back-ground, which has a low surface emissivity at these frequencies, small convection produces an increase inT _B at 92 GHz due to emission by liquid water in the cloud. As the convection deepens and ice forms,T _B at both frequencies decreases rapidly with increasing rain rate. The large decrease inT _B with increasing storm intensity is due to scattering of upwelling radiation by precipitation-sized ice particles within the clouds. With high rain rates, there is little difference betweenT _B observed over both land and water backgrounds.TheT _B features in the aircraft imagery are qualitatively similar to radar echoes in plan position indicator (PPI) images. Areas of extremely coldT _B (<150 K) coincide with high radar reflectivities. The highest correlations between microwave and radar features with regard to location, intensity, and shape occur more frequently with mid-to upperlevel echoes rather than low-level reflectivity features.With 12 Figures