重庆岩溶地质高背景区土壤-农作物系统重金属累积特征及影响因素

为了揭示重庆岩溶地质高背景区土壤-农作物系统中重金属的迁移累积特征,选择在重庆市南部典型岩溶区,系统地采集大宗农作物(水稻、玉米和红薯)及其耕层土壤84组,分析测定农作物及耕层土壤中重金属砷(As)、镉(Cd)、铬(Cr)、铜(Cu)、汞(Hg)、镍(Ni)、锌(Zn)含量及理化性质,采用地统计、生物富集因子及皮尔逊相关系数分析等方法,开展重金属元素在重庆岩溶地质高背景地区土壤-农作物系统中累积特征及影响因素。结果表明,研究区水稻田、玉米地和红薯地耕层土壤重金属平均含量均高于重庆市和全国表层土壤背景值,呈现不同程度的积累,其中Cd元素富集现象较为突出。依据GB 15618-2018和GB 2762-2017.耕层土壤种Cd超标率达41.59%,水稻、玉米和红薯中Cd超标率分别为5.89%、6.25%和5.56%,显示出岩溶地质高背景区虽然土壤中重金属含量总量高,但生物有效性较低。相关分析显示,土壤-农作物系统Cd等重金属含量主要受土壤pH、土壤质地和土壤中铁锰氧化物影响。     

广西岩溶区土壤铁锰结核重金属富集的地质特征

广西岩溶区农田土壤重金属污染形势严峻。该地区土壤含有大量铁锰结核,其主要成分为铁和锰的氧化物,对重金属有着较强的富集作用。铁锰结核伴随着土壤形成过程而产生,也是反映土壤形成过程及成土环境变化的良好载体。研究铁锰结核中重金属的富集特征有助于了解广西岩溶区土壤中重金属元素的富集过程和富集特征。文章对广西柳江和桂平的土壤与其中的铁锰结核进行了成分分析,通过微量元素分析得到铁锰结核对Ni、Cu、Cd、Zn、Pb、Co、Ba、As、Cr等重金属元素的富集特征,通过Ti/Al2O3的比值关系推断了铁锰结核与土壤的物质来源。此外,还对铁锰结核进行了激光共聚焦显微拉曼光谱仪（Laser Microscopic Confocal Raman Spectrometer）、扫描电镜和能谱仪（SEM-EDS）分析。通过铁锰结核内部同心环带状圈层结构及其内部的元素分布周期性变化的特征,推测结核形成机制。铁锰结核的形成固定了大量重金属元素,减轻了土壤重金属污染负担;但如果铁锰结核发生了溶解则会导致Mn及受其控制的部分重金属（Co、Cu、Ni、Ba）重新释放回到土壤,加重重金属污染。     

云南典型地质高背景区土壤重金属含量特征及污染风险评价

云南峨眉山玄武岩和碳酸盐岩分布区为典型重金属地质高背景区,选取云南鲁甸县典型地质高背景区为研究对象,采集1406件表层土壤样品,系统研究土壤中重金属含量特征,评价土壤重金属污染风险,重点探讨不同地质岩性对土壤重金属含量的影响,分析土壤重金属的来源。结果表明:(1)表层土壤中Cu、Cr、Cd、Zn和Ni含量均超出云南省背景值,土壤重金属含量明显受成土母质影响,碳酸盐岩明显富集Cd、Cr、Cu、Hg、Ni、Pb、Zn,飞仙关组碎屑岩明显富集Cr、Cu、Ni、Cd,玄武岩明显富集Cu、Cd、Zn、Cr,均为典型的地质高背景区;(2)表层土壤重金属综合评价等级以风险可控为主,碳酸盐岩、飞仙关组碎屑岩和玄武岩土壤中污染风险较高的重金属元素主要为Cd、Cu、Cr、Ni,且明显受玄武岩岩浆活动影响;(3)主成分和空间分析结果显示,地质高背景区土壤重金属高含量主要为成土母岩中重金属高含量及其风化成土过程中次生富集作用导致,人为影响相对较小。     

湘江下游河床沉积物重金属污染的矿物学分析北大核心CSCD

本次工作利用X射线衍射仪、扫描电镜-能谱仪等技术手段,分析湘江下游河床沉积物的矿物组成,并结合元素地球化学分析结果探讨沉积物中重金属的赋存特征。结果表明,湘江下游沉积物矿物组成复杂。轻矿物以碎屑矿物(石英、钾长石、钠长石)、黏土矿物(云母、伊利石、高岭石、绿泥石等)和碳/硫酸盐矿物(方解石、白云石、石膏)为主,含量在95%以上;重矿物以铁矿物(赤铁矿、磁铁矿、针铁矿、钛铁矿)、稳定重矿物(锆石、金红石、磷灰石、石榴子石等)和不稳定重矿物(角闪石、辉石等)为主,含量低于5%。与其他河段沉积物相比,株洲霞湾段沉积物的碎屑矿物含量明显偏低,而黏土矿物、碳/硫酸盐矿物、铁矿物等的含量明显偏高。这与该河段沉积物重金属污染程度明显偏高的特征相对应。矿物含量与重金属的富集系数相关性分析显示,V、Th、Cr等主要赋存在伊利石等黏土矿物中,Cu、Zn、Pb、U、Co、Ni等主要赋存在铁矿物、碳/硫酸盐矿物中。赋存在黏土矿物中的重金属主要与岩石风化等自然因素有关,为自然来源。而赋存在铁矿物、碳/硫酸盐矿物等矿物中的重金属可能既有自然来源,又有人为来源。且赋存在铁氧化物矿物和碳、硫酸盐矿物中的重金属因环境条件变化,可释放转入水体而对环境产生危害,应引起重视。     

典型喀斯特地质高背景区土壤剖面镉的迁移富集机制与形态转化过程研究

本研究以贵州西北部典型喀斯特地质高背景区土壤剖面为对象，探讨了土壤镉(Cd)含量与形态的纵向分布特征、Cd迁移转化过程及关键影响因素。结果表明，下伏高Cd碳酸盐岩风化成土作用是剖面土壤Cd富集的重要原因，在土壤形成初期，土壤pH较高，地质源Cd淋失较少，土壤Cd含量高；随着土壤发育程度加深，地质源Cd逐渐淋失，Cd含量降低。此外，区域人为源输入可能影响表层土壤Cd的富集。土壤地质源Cd主要以残余态存在，其次为铁锰氧化物结合态，可交换态的占比较低，Cd活性较低。剖面中下层(>60 cm)土壤Cd的赋存形态变化较小，剖面上层(<60 cm)土壤可交换态Cd的占比随土壤深度的降低而逐渐增大，地质源Cd被活化。本研究结果可为理解喀斯特地质高背景区土壤Cd的地球化学行为提供科学参考。     

西南重金属高背景区农田系统土壤重金属生态风险评价

西南地区是我国典型重金属高背景区,在重金属高背景区开展生态风险评价对保障粮食安全有重要意义。采集云南省重金属高背景区土壤表层(0～20 cm)样品242件,农作物及对应的根系土样品74件,分析土壤和农作物样品中8种重金属(Cd、Cr、As、Hg、Pb、Cu、Zn、Ni)含量以及土壤中重金属赋存形态。研究发现,受地质背景因素影响,Cd、Cr、Cu、Hg、Ni和Zn含量平均值均超过云南省土壤背景值,Cd、Cu和Ni含量平均值均超过农用地土壤污染风险管控标准规定的筛选值,土壤pH值多呈酸性,有机质含量较低。土壤中As、Cr、Cu、Ni、Pb和Zn主要以残渣态形式存在,生物有效性低,是由地质背景引起的;Cd残渣态占比较低,生物有效组分较高,Cd元素的地累积指数分布显示,Cd受人为污染和地质背景交互叠加的影响,是研究区污染风险最高的重金属元素。Hg来源较为复杂,全量较低,污染风险较小。研究区大宗粮食作物(马铃薯和玉米)重金属含量均不超标,生物富集系数(BCF)均小于0.03,粮食作物较安全,生态风险较低。黄烟中Cd含量远远超过目前初步制定的安全限量标准,BCF为3.13,说明烟草特别能富集Cd,存在一定的生态风险。表层土壤重金属潜在生态风险指数(RI)统计结果显示,土壤重金属RI贡献降序依次为Cd(73.71)Hg(57.40)Cu(25.25)Ni(8.76)As(7.39)Cr(4.15)Pb(4.04)Zn(2.0),Cd和Hg是研究区最重要的风险元素,但均以中等生态危害为主,很强生态危害分布面积较小,研究区生态风险整体较低,风险可控。     

湘江下游河床沉积物重金属污染的矿物学分析

本次工作利用X射线衍射仪、扫描电镜-能谱仪等技术手段,分析湘江下游河床沉积物的矿物组成,并结合元素地球化学分析结果探讨沉积物中重金属的赋存特征。结果表明,湘江下游沉积物矿物组成复杂。轻矿物以碎屑矿物(石英、钾长石、钠长石)、黏土矿物(云母、伊利石、高岭石、绿泥石等)和碳/硫酸盐矿物(方解石、白云石、石膏)为主,含量在95%以上;重矿物以铁矿物(赤铁矿、磁铁矿、针铁矿、钛铁矿)、稳定重矿物(锆石、金红石、磷灰石、石榴子石等)和不稳定重矿物(角闪石、辉石等)为主,含量低于5%。与其他河段沉积物相比,株洲霞湾段沉积物的碎屑矿物含量明显偏低,而黏土矿物、碳/硫酸盐矿物、铁矿物等的含量明显偏高。这与该河段沉积物重金属污染程度明显偏高的特征相对应。矿物含量与重金属的富集系数相关性分析显示,V、Th、Cr等主要赋存在伊利石等黏土矿物中,Cu、Zn、Pb、U、Co、Ni等主要赋存在铁矿物、碳/硫酸盐矿物中。赋存在黏土矿物中的重金属主要与岩石风化等自然因素有关,为自然来源。而赋存在铁矿物、碳/硫酸盐矿物等矿物中的重金属可能既有自然来源,又有人为来源。且赋存在铁氧化物矿物和碳、硫酸盐矿物中的重金属因环境条件变化,可释放转入水体而对环境产生危害,应引起重视。     

几种铁（氢）氧化物对溶液中磷的吸附作用对比研究

铁(氢)氧化物不仅是土壤中广泛存在的矿物,也是重要的矿物资源。表生地质作用形成的针铁矿、赤铁矿和无定形氢氧化铁都具有纳米尺度,具有很高的表面积,表现出对磷的专性吸附,是低浓度磷的潜在吸附材料。本文通过铁(氢)氧化物对水溶液中磷酸根的等温吸附实验,初步对比研究了针铁矿、合成氧化铁黄、赤铁矿和无定形氢氧化铁对水中低浓度磷的吸附作用。结果表明,无定形氢氧化铁对水溶液中磷酸根的吸附能力最强(对低浓度磷的吸附达到5.5mg/g),其次是氧化铁黄和针铁矿,赤铁矿的吸附能力最差。几种铁(氢)氧化物对磷吸附容量的差别主要受比表面积控制。无定形氢氧化铁、合成氧化铁黄、针铁矿、赤铁矿对磷的吸附符合Freundlich等温方程。针铁矿和赤铁矿对磷的吸附动力学符合双常数速率方程。     

武汉黄棕壤中铁锰结核的环带构造、元素富集特点与环境变化意义

土壤铁锰结核的环带记录了土壤成土过程和环境条件。文章利用扫描电镜及能谱探针分析测定了铁锰结核剖面上某些元素的含量与分布,研究表明:结核内部为不规则环带,Mn、Fe、Ca呈环带分布,大部分Ca赋存于铁锰结核的外层环带,Si、Al在剖面上呈匀态分布;结核剖面上Mn、Fe、Ca的含量呈波形曲线,根据它们的变幅,推测出该结核经历了10次以上的干湿交替过程,其中在结核生长初期经历了较弱的干湿交替环境,而在其生长后期处于相对较强的干湿交替环境;通过相关分析与因子分析,结核剖面上Ba、Ca、Co、Pb的富集与氧化锰矿物有关,而Ni、P的富集与氧化铁矿物有关     

黎塘岩溶区土壤铁锰结核的地球化学特征研究

对黎塘岩溶区土壤铁锰结核的地球化学特征研究表明:与土壤相比,铁锰结核的化学组成中仍以SiO2、Al2O3和Fe2O3为主,但Fe2O3的含量明显增加,成为铁锰结核中含量最多的氧化物,MnO含量也有一定程度增加,它们富集系数分别为5．19和3．40;铁锰结核对重金属具有明显的富集效应,其富集顺序为Cr（M）〉Pb〉Co〉Zn〉Ni〉Ba〉Li,它在土壤中的含量受成土母质及浅层地下水活动的影响。元素的相关分析及因子分析表明,铁锰结核在形成过程中还具有成核富集效应、专性吸附效应和成核易淋溶效应。      

Heavy metal pollution and soil magnetic susceptibility in urban soil of Beni Mellal City (Morocco)

The assessment of anthropogenic impact in the urban environment can be evaluated according to heavy metal contents of soils such as Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd and Fe. These elements have more affinity to establish metallic bond with ferrous material leading to enhancement of soil magnetic susceptibility. The objective of this study was to undertake joint magnetic and geochemical investigations of road-side urban soil materials to address the environmental pollution of Beni Mellal city that has been subjected to environmental stress, due to population overpressure and related urbanization. Twenty three soils magnetic susceptibility profiles were made along 5 km peripheral national road (N8) in Beni Mellal. The magnetic survey reported here for the first time on this City’s topsoils tries to establish the link between magnetic properties and the content of heavy metals. High magnetic susceptibility values and high contents of heavy metals were found near the paved edge of the road and within the place reserved as large engine park. Magnetic extracts of highly polluted areas and unpolluted soil (olive plantation) were analyzed by SEM coupled with RDX in order to discriminate anthropogenic magnetic spherules and pedo-lithogenic magnetite-like minerals. Magnetic mineralogy determined by Mössbauer spectroscopy suggests the presence of hematite, magnetite and goethite in highly polluted areas. The iron oxides and especially goethite are efficient in incorporating and/or adsorbing foreign ions.     

Mineralogy,geochemistry and origin of Mn in the high-Mn iron ores,Bahariya Oasis,Egypt

Although Mn is one of the major impurities in the economic iron ores from the Bahariya Oasis, information on its modes of occurrence and origin is lacking in previous studies. High-Mn iron ores from El Gedida and Ghorabi–Nasser iron mines were subjected to detailed mineralogical, geochemical, and petrographic investigations using X-ray diffraction (XRD), infrared absorption spectrometry (IR), Raman spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA) to clarify the modes of occurrence of Mn in these deposits and its origin. The results showed that the MnO₂ contents range between 0.03 and 13.9 wt.%. Three mineralogical types have been identified for the Mn in the high-Mn iron ores, including: (1) inclusions within the hematite and goethite and/or Mn accumulated on their active surfaces, (2) coarse-grained and crystalline pyrolusite, and (3) fine-grained cement-like Mn oxide and hydroxide minerals (bixbyite, cryptomelane, aurorite, romanechite, manjiroite, and pyrochroite) between the Fe-bearing minerals. The Mn carbonate mineral (rhodochrosite) was detected only in the Ghorabi–Nasser high-Mn iron ores. Since IR patterns of low-Mn and high-Mn samples are almost the same, a combination of XRD analysis using non-filtered Fe-Kα radiations and Raman spectroscopy could be the best way to identify and distinguish between different Mn minerals.Assuming that both Fe and Mn were derived from the same source, the occurrence of high-Mn iron ores at the base of the stratigraphic section of the deposits overlain by the low-Mn iron ores indicated a supergene origin of the studied ores by descending solutions. The predominance of Mn oxide and hydroxide minerals in botryoidal shapes supports this interpretation. The small grain size of Mn-bearing minerals as well as the features of microbial fossils such as spherical, elliptical, and filamentous shapes of the Fe-bearing minerals suggested a microbial origin of studied iron ores.Variations in the distribution and mineralogy types of Mn in the iron ores of the Bahariya Oasis demanded detailed mineralogical and petrographic characterizations of the deposits before the beneficiation of high-Mn iron ores from the Bahariya Oasis as feedstock for the ironmaking industries in Egypt by magnetizing reduction. High Mn contents, especially in the Ghorabi–Nasser iron ore and occurrence of Mn as inclusions and/or accumulated on the surface of the Fe-bearing minerals would suggest a possible utilization of the high-Mn iron ores to produce ferromanganese alloys.     

Soil metal pollution from former Zn–Pb mining assessed by geochemical and magnetic investigations: case study of the Bou Caid area (Tissemsilt,Algeria)

Former zinc and lead mines that have been operating for half a century are located in the massif of Bou Caid (Tissemsilt, Algeria). Hazardous heavy metals emitted from the mines are abundant in the surrounding soil and cause strong metal pollution in the region. This paper investigates the extent of lead and zinc mine activity derived pollution by characterizing both magnetic and geochemical properties of samples collected in the vicinity of the mines. The results of the magnetic study show the coexistence of magnetic minerals such as magnetite, hematite and goethite. Analyses on surface soils and weathered rocks suggest that hematite and goethite have ore-related lithogenic origins. Magnetic susceptibility shows a positive correlation with lead content when present in low-to-medium concentrations (< ~500 mg/kg). At higher lead concentrations, there is no correlation with magnetic susceptibility. The relationship between magnetic susceptibility and zinc content is not straightforward. These observations are explained by the higher affinity of Pb to iron oxides at lower pollution levels and their preferential bonding to carbonates when Pb and Zn contents are extremely high, as demonstrated by Iavazzo et al. (J Geochem Explor 113:56–67, 2012) in a study of former Zn–Pb mine in Morocco. Based on the general features of the spatial maps of field-measured magnetic susceptibility, mass-specific magnetic susceptibility, Pb and Zn contents, it is concluded that field magnetic measurements provide a good qualitative proxy of pollution spread out of the mining galleries, while laboratory measurements afford a more detailed investigation of the links between iron oxides and the main heavy metals in the ore.     

沉积物中铁氧化物的定量方法及其 在白垩纪大洋红层中的应用

赤铁矿和针铁矿是自然界中最稳定的两种铁氧化物,广泛存在于地球的各个圈层。很多沉积物的颜色都是由它们引 起的,它们的形成和保存具有重要的环境指示意义。实验室中赤铁矿和针铁矿的表征和鉴定手段很多,但受其含量低、结 晶差、颗粒细小难分离等因素的困扰以及某些测试方法自身的限制,能用于铁氧化物定量分析的方法很少。文中就常用的 基于X射线衍射（XRD） 和漫反射光谱（DRS） 的铁氧化物定量方法进行了系统评价。在定性分析的基础上,采用基于 XRD的K值法获得西藏床得剖面红色页岩中赤铁矿的含量为3.81％~8.11％,采用DRS与多元线性回归相结合的方法获得北 大西洋ODP1049C孔12X岩芯段棕色层中赤铁矿和针铁矿的含量分别为0.13％~0.82％和0.22%~0.81％,橙色层中赤铁矿和 针铁矿的含量分别为0.19%~0.46％和0.29%~0.67％。与其它分析结果的比较表明,这两种定量方法在白垩纪大洋红层中的 应用是可行的。但在实际应用时,首先要通过XRD和DRS相结合来提高定性分析的准确性,然后通过综合分析铁氧化物的 预判含量范围和结晶程度来选择合适的定量方法。     

应用矿物磁测技术和X射线衍射研究氧化土中的磁性矿物

应用矿物磁测、Ｘ射线衍射和化学分析对氧化土的磁性矿物进行了研究。结果表明矿物磁测及磁分离技术与Ｘ射线衍射结合是鉴别土壤中磁性矿物的类型及其晶粒特征的有效方法,证明氧化土中的主要氧化铁矿物是赤铁矿和磁赤铁矿,针铁矿次之,磁铁矿偶见,其磁赤铁矿的含量可达１．６２％￣１．９２％。土壤中磁性矿物的晶粒特征多以超顺磁性和稳定单畴态存在,认为磁性矿物的成因是通过缓慢的成土化学作用产生的。     

氧化铁矿物作为环境材料在土壤和水体中的应用

本文简要介绍了氧化铁矿物的基本性能和应用领域，着重阐述了氧化铁矿物在土壤改良和治理土壤中重金属有毒元素和水体污染中的应用，明确提出氧化铁矿物作为环境矿物材料储量大、提取简单、治理污染设备简易且效果好、无二次污染，展望了氧化铁矿物在控制和保护环境领域中的应用前景。     

Characterization of bauxite deposits from Kachchh Area,Gujarat

The bauxites deposits of Kachchh area in Gujarat are investigated to characterize them based on mineralogical and petrographic studies. The major bauxitic mineral in these occurrences is gibbsite, with minor concentration of boehmite and diaspore. Apart from the bauxitic minerals, the other associate minerals are kaolin, calcite, alunite and the iron ore minerals such as hematite and goethite and titanium rich anatase. The iron ore minerals (hematite and goethite) are 10-50microns in size and are disseminated throughout the oolitic and pisolitic bauxitic minerals. At places the goethite exhibits colloform texture. The preservation of basaltic texture in some of the samples indicate that the insitu nature of these bauxites, which are formed by the alteration of calcic plagioclase from the parent basalt. Although, the basalt occurs as the main parent rock for these bauxites, the presence of calcite in some of the samples represent the possibility of having a limestone parent rock at least in some of the bauxite occurrences.     

Ion exchange properties of manganese and iron minerals in oceanic micronodules

The results of experimental studies of ion exchange properties of manganese and iron minerals in micronodules (MN) from diverse bioproductive zones of the World Ocean are considered. It was found that the sorption behavior of these minerals is similar to that of ore minerals from ferromanganese nodules (FMN) and low-temperature hydrothermal crusts. The exchange complex of minerals in the MN includes the major (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and Mn²⁺) and the subordinate (Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Co²⁺, Pb²⁺, and others) cations. Reactivity of theses cations increases from Pb²⁺ and Co²⁺ to Na⁺ and Ca²⁺. Exchange capacity of MN minerals increases from the alkali to heavy metal cations. Capacity of iron and manganese minerals in the oceanic MN increases in the following series: goethite < goethite + birnessite < todorokite + asbolane-buserite + birnessite < asbolane-buserite + birnessite < birnessite + asbolane-buserite < birnessite + vernadite Fe-vernadite + Mn-feroxyhyte. The data obtained supplement the available information on the ion exchange properties of oceanic ferromanganese sediments and refine the role of sorption processes in the redistribution of metal cations at the bottom (ooze) water-sediment interface during the MN formation and growth.     

碳酸盐岩红色风化壳中的氧化铁矿物

氧化铁矿物是碳酸盐岩红色风化壳的主要矿物成分和重要结构单元。运用X射线衍射、透射电镜、扫描电镜、穆斯堡尔谱和电子探针等方法对碳酸盐岩红色风化壳中的氧化铁矿物进行了系统研究。碳酸盐岩红色风化壳中的氧化铁矿物主要有针铁矿、赤铁矿和磁赤铁矿。氧化铁矿物组合、含量和化学成分随成土环境和风化强度在剖面中呈明显的规律性变化,这为碳酸盐岩风化成土作用、红色风化壳成因与环境问题的深入研究提供了重要的矿物学依据。     

Mineralogical controls on element dispersion in regolith over two mineralised shear zones near the Peak, Cobar, New South Wales

Effective exploration for polymetallic ore deposits in the Cobar region is hampered by incomplete knowledge of the mineralogical controls on element dispersion in the different regolith-landform settings throughout the area. A detailed mineralogical and geochemical study of regolith profiles over two major mineralised shear zones in a strongly weathered but dominantly erosional setting has delineated the important host minerals for a range of base metal cations. Iron oxides/oxyhydroxides, particularly goethite and to a much lesser extent hematite, are major hosts for Pb, Cu, and Zn as substituted/adsorbed cations and as constituents of associated or intergrown minerals, probably including members of the jarosite–alunite group. Correlations between elements and major regolith minerals suggest that goethite is also a host phase for As, Bi and Sb. Minor manganese minerals, including lithiophorite and cryptomelane group minerals, also host base metals in appreciable amounts. No clear association was found between gold and any particular secondary mineral. It is likely that gold is present largely as elemental gold particles associated with a range of minerals.Sampling strategies for geochemical exploration in variably leached and stripped regolith in the Cobar area should take into account the relative abundance of goethite and manganese oxides/oxyhydroxides within the profiles and overlying lag. Goethite would appear to be the preferred sampling medium for base metals. Highly ferruginous lag has a high proportion of hematite with variable maghemite and very low manganese oxide contents. Most of the base metal content in this surface material is strongly bound to the crystalline oxides/oxyhydroxides. More work is required to understand the effects of surface transformation of goethite to hematite and maghemite on the mobility and distribution of base metal cations in soil and ferruginous lags.