An annual cycle of vegetation in a GCM. Part I: implementation and impact on evaporation

The sensitivity of evaporation to a prescribed vegetation annual cycle is examined globally in the Met Office Hadley Centre Unified Model (HadAM3) which incorporates the Met Office Surface Exchange Scheme (MOSES2) as the land surface scheme. A vegetation annual cycle for each plant functional type in each grid box is derived based on satellite estimates of Leaf Area Index (LAI) obtained from the nine-year International Satellite Land Surface Climatology Project II dataset. The prescribed model vegetation seasonality consists of annual cycles of a number of structural vegetation characteristics including LAI as well as canopy height, surface roughness, canopy water capacity, and canopy heat capacity, which themselves are based on empirical relationships with LAI. An annual cycle of surface albedo, which in the model is a function of soil albedo, surface soil moisture, and LAI, is also modelled and agrees reasonably with observed estimates of the surface albedo annual cycle. Two 25-year numerical experiments are completed and compared: the first with vegetation characteristics held at annual mean values, the second with prescribed realistic seasonally varying vegetation. Initial analysis uncovered an unrealistically weak relationship between evaporation and vegetation state that is primarily due to the insensitivity of evapotranspiration to LAI. This weak relationship is strengthened by the adjustment of two MOSES2 parameters that together improve the models LAI-surface conductance relationship by comparison with observed and theoretical estimates. The extinction coefficient for photosynthetically active radiation, k _par , is adjusted downwards from 0.5 to 0.3, thereby enhancing the LAI-canopy conductance relationship. A canopy shading extinction coefficient, k _sh , that controls what fraction of the soil surface beneath a canopy is directly exposed to the overlying atmosphere is increased from 0.5 to 1.0, which effectively reduces soil evaporation under a dense canopy. When the experiments are repeated with the adjusted parameters, the relationship between evaporation and vegetation state is strengthened and is more spatially consistent. At nearly all locations, the annual cycle of evaporation is enhanced in the seasonally varying vegetation experiment. Evaporation is stronger during the peak of the growing season and, in the tropics, reduced transpiration during the dry season when LAI is small leads to significantly lower total evaporation.     

Three-year Variations of Water, Energy and CO$_2$ Fluxes of Cropland and Degraded Grassland Surfaces in a Semi-arid Area of Northeastern China

Based on 3 years （2003-05） of the eddy covariance （EC） observations on degraded grassland and cropland surfaces in a semi-arid area of Tongyu （44°25′N, 122°52′E, 184 m a.s.1.）, Northeast China, seasonal and annual variations of water, energy and CO2 fluxes have been investigated. The soil moisture in the thin soil layer （at 0.05, 0.10 and 0.20 m） clearly indicates the pronounced annual wet-dry cycle; the annual cycle is divided into the wet （growing season） and dry seasons （non-growing season）. During the growing season （from May to September）, the sensible and latent heat fluxes showed a linear dependence on the global solar radiation. However, in the non-growing season, the latent heat flux was always less than 50 W m^-2, while the available energy was dissipated as sensible, rather than latent heat flux. During the growing season in 2003-05, the daily average sensible and latent heat fluxes were larger on the cropland surface than on the degraded grassland surface. The cropland ecosystem absorbed more CO2 than the degraded grassland ecosystem in the growing season in 2003-05. The total evapotranspiration on the cropland was more than the total precipitation, while the total evapotranspiration on the degraded grassland was almost the same as the total annual precipitation in the growing season. The soil moisture had a good correlation with the rainfall in the growing season. Precipitation in the growing season is an important factor on the water and carbon budget in the semi-arid area.     

Effects of Land Cover Conversion on Surface Climate

This study investigates the effects of large-scale human modification of land cover on regional and global climate. A general circulation model (Colorado State University GCM) coupled to a biophysically-based land surface model (SiB2) was used to run two 15-yr climate simulations. The control run used current vegetation distribution as observed by satellite for the year 1987 to derive the vegetation's physiological and morphological properties. The twin simulation used a realistic approximation of vegetation type distribution that would exist in the absence of human disturbance.In temperate latitudes, where anthropogenic modification of the landscape has converted large areas of forest and grassland to cropland, conversion cools canopy temperatures up to 0.7 ° C in summer and 1.1 ° C in winter. This cooling results from both (1) morphological changes in vegetation which increase albedo and (2) physiological changes in vegetation which increase latent heat flux of crops compared with undisturbed vegetation during the growing season. In the tropics and subtropics, conversion warms canopy temperature by about 0.8 ° C year round. The warming results from a combination of morphological changes in vegetation offset by physiological changes that reduce latent heat flux of existing compared with undisturbed vegetation. If water efficient, tropical C4 grasses replace C3 vegetation, latent heat flux is further reduced.The overall effect of land cover conversion is cooling in temperate latitudes and warming in the tropics. Because the effects are opposite in sign in tropics and middle latitudes, they cancel each other when averaged globally. Over land, the surface temperature increased by 0.2 C in winter and remained essentially unchanged in summer. The effects on land surface hydrology were also small when averaged globally. The results suggest that the effects of land use change of the observed magnitude do not have a strong impact on the globally averaged climate but their signature at regional scales is significant and vary according to the type of land cover conversion.     

Evaluation of the Urban Tile in MOSES using Surface Energy Balance Observations

The UK Met Office has introduced a new scheme for its urban tile in MOSES 2.2 (Met Office Surface Exchange Scheme version 2.2), which is currently implemented within the operational Met Office weather forecasting model. Here, the performance of the urban tile is evaluated in two urban areas: the historic core of downtown Mexico City and a light industrial site in Vancouver, Canada. The sites differ in terms of building structures and mean building heights. In both cases vegetation cover is less than 5%. The evaluation is based on surface energy balance flux measurements conducted at approximately the blending height, which is the location where the surface scheme passes flux data into the atmospheric model. At both sites, MOSES 2.2 correctly simulates the net radiation, but there are discrepancies in the partitioning of turbulent and storage heat fluxes between predicted and observed values. Of the turbulent fluxes, latent heat fluxes were underpredicted by about one order of magnitude. Multiple model runs revealed MOSES 2.2 to be sensitive to changes in the canopy heat storage and in the ratio between the aerodynamic roughness length and that for heat transfer (temperature). Model performance was optimum with heat capacity values smaller than those generally considered for these sites. The results suggest that the current scheme is probably too simple, and that improvements may be obtained by increasing the complexity of the model.     

植被冠层截留对地表水分和能量平衡影响的数值模拟

利用NCAR_CLM4.0模式,通过有无植被冠层截留的试验对比分析,讨论了植被冠层截留对全球陆面水分和能量平衡产生的潜在影响.结果表明:就全球水分平衡而言,不考虑植被冠层截留时,全球平均土壤总含水量、表面径流和次表面径流增加,蒸散发减少.空间分布特征表明,低纬地区各水分平衡分量全年维持较高的差值分布,并随季节变化沿赤道南北振荡;北半球中高纬高值区有春季扩张、夏季极盛、秋冬季撤退的趋势.冠层截留消失后冠层蒸发的消失是蒸散发减弱的主要原因.对于能量平衡而言,不考虑冠层截留时,全球感热通量增加,冠层感热的增加明显大于地面感热的减少;潜热减少.此外,不同植被类型对不考虑冠层截留后产生的响应存在明显差异.     

植被覆盖异常变化影响陆面状况的数值模拟

利用NCAR最新的公用陆面模式CLM3．0，通过数值模拟初步研究了植被叶面积指数（LAI，leafareaindex）异常变化对陆面状况的可能影响，结果表明，植被LAI的异常变化能够引起地表能量平衡、地表水循环等陆面状况的异常。（1）植被LAI的异常变化主要影响太阳辐射在植被与地表之间的分配，以及地表的感热、潜热通量。植被LAI增大，能够引起植被吸收的太阳辐射增加，而到达土壤表面的太阳辐射减小，并导致植被的蒸发、蒸腾潜热通量增加，造成地表的蒸发潜热和感热通量不同程度的减小。（2）植被LAI增大时，植被对降水的拦截和植被叶面的蒸发增大，植被的蒸腾作用也明显增强；植被LAI增加会使得热带地区各个季节的土壤表面蒸发、地表径流减小，而土壤湿度有所增加；LAI增加造成中高纬度地区土壤蒸发的减少主要出现在夏季；LAI增加还能够引起中高纬地区冬、春积雪深度不同程度的增加，造成春末、夏初地表径流的增加。（3）植被LAI增加能够使得叶面和土壤温度有所下降，但植被LAI的变化对叶面、土壤温度的影响相对较小。     

Micrometeorological changes associated with vegetation removal and influencing desert formation

Summary The effects of vegetation removal on the energy balance components, soil and air temperatures, and atmospheric vapour densities are predicted using a recently developed analytical theory. The results show that the sum of daily average sensible and latent heat flux densities decreases as the surface resistance and albedo increase and the surface roughness decreases, which according to some numerical models implies reductions in rainfall. For a dry surface daytime atmospheric heating decreases with vegetation removal because albedo and soil admittance increase and atmospheric admittance decreases; according to another model this should reduce precipitation. The results show that surface temperature is not an appropriate diagnostic measure of sensible heat flux density, even under constant meteorological conditions, when changes in surface roughness also occur. Analysis of some surface temperatures measurements made in the Negev and the Sinai suggests that understanding the turbulent processes occurring in the roughness sublayer, when the surface is partially covered with vegetation, is critical in assessing the micrometeorological changes associated with vegetation removal and desert formation.With 2 Figures     

Comparative analysis of different underlying surfaces using a high-resolution assimilation dataset in semi-arid areas in China

To study the land surface and atmospheric meteorological characteristics of non-uniform underlying surfaces in the semi-arid area of Northeast China, we use a “High-Resolution Assimilation Dataset of the water-energy cycle in China (HRADC)”. The grid points of three different underlying surfaces were selected, and their meteorological elements were averaged for each type (i.e., mixed forest, grassland, and cropland). For 2009, we compared and analyzed the different components of leaf area index (LAI), soil temperature and moisture, surface albedo, precipitation, and surface energy for various underlying surfaces in Northeast China. The results indicated that the LAI of mixed forest and cropland during the summer is greater than 5 m² m^?2 and below 2.5 m² m^?2 for grassland; in the winter and spring seasons, the Green Vegetation Fraction (GVF) is below 30%. The soil temperature and moisture both vary greatly. Throughout the year, the mixed forest is dominated by latent heat evaporation; in grasslands and croplands, the sensible heat flux and the latent heat flux are approximately equal, and the GVF contributed more to latent heat flux than sensible heat flux in the summer. This study compares meteorological characteristics between three different underlying surfaces of the semi-arid area of Northeast China and makes up for the insufficiency of purely using observations for the study. This research is important for understanding the water-energy cycle and transport in the semi-arid area.     

Parameterization of snow-free land surface albedo as a function of vegetation phenology based on MODIS data and applied in climate modelling

The aim of this study was to develop an advanced parameterization of the snow-free land surface albedo for climate modelling describing the temporal variation of surface albedo as a function of vegetation phenology on a monthly time scale. To estimate the effect of vegetation phenology on snow-free land surface albedo, remotely sensed data products from the Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the NASA Terra platform measured during 2001 to 2004 are used. The snow-free surface albedo variability is determined by the optical contrast between the vegetation canopy and the underlying soil surface. The MODIS products of the white-sky albedo for total shortwave broad bands and the fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (FPAR) are analysed to separate the vegetation canopy albedo from the underlying soil albedo. Global maps of pure soil albedo and pure vegetation albedo are derived on a 0.5° regular latitude/longitude grid, re-sampling the high-resolution information from remote sensing-measured pixel level to the model grid scale and filling up gaps from the satellite data. These global maps show that in the northern and mid-latitudes soils are mostly darker than vegetation, whereas in the lower latitudes, especially in semi-deserts, soil albedo is mostly higher than vegetation albedo. The separated soil and vegetation albedo can be applied to compute the annual surface albedo cycle from monthly varying leaf area index. This parameterization is especially designed for the land surface scheme of the regional climate model REMO and the global climate model ECHAM5, but can easily be integrated into the land surface schemes of other regional and global climate models.     

玛曲高寒草甸地表辐射与能量收支的季节变化

利用中国科学院黄河源区气候与环境综合观测研究站2010年观测资料,分析了玛曲高寒草甸地表辐射与能量收支的季节特征。结果表明:玛曲高寒草甸入射太阳辐射与净辐射年累积量分别为6482.2和2577.2MJ.m-2.a-1;年平均地表反照率为0.25,生长期平均地表反照率为0.22;全年入射太阳辐射的38%转换为地表长波辐射,明显高于低海拔地区的草地;净辐射占入射太阳辐射的38%,低于全球以及低海拔地区的草地;在冻结期,感热通量占净辐射的93%,在生长期,潜热通量占净辐射的62%。     

Effects of Crop Growth and Development on Land Surface Fluxes

In this study, the Crop Estimation through Resource and Environment Synthesis model (CERES3.0) was coupled into the Biosphere-Atmosphere Transfer Scheme (BATS), which is called BATS CERES, to represent interactions between the land surface and crop growth processes. The effects of crop growth and development on land surface processes were then studied based on numerical simulations using the land surface models. Six sensitivity experiments by BATS show that the land surface fluxes underwent substantial changes when the leaf area index was changed from 0 to 6 m2 m-2. Numerical experiments for Yucheng and Taoyuan stations reveal that the coupled model could capture not only the responses of crop growth and development to environmental conditions, but also the feedbacks to land surface processes. For quantitative evaluation of the effects of crop growth and development on surface fluxes in China, two numerical experiments were conducted over continental China: one by BATS CERES and one by the original BATS. Comparison of the two runs shows decreases of leaf area index and fractional vegetation cover when incorporating dynamic crops in land surface simulation, which lead to less canopy interception, vegetation transpiration, total evapotranspiration, top soil moisture, and more soil evaporation, surface runoff, and root zone soil moisture. These changes are accompanied by decreasing latent heat flux and increasing sensible heat flux in the cropland region. In addition, the comparison between the simulations and observations proved that incorporating the crop growth and development process into the land surface model could reduce the systematic biases of the simulated leaf area index and top soil moisture, hence improve the simulation of land surface fluxes.     

卫星遥感确定沙特阿拉伯吉达地区非均匀地表区域地表参数和能量通量

对临海沙漠地区非均匀地表区域地表能量通量和蒸发(蒸散)的研究,是一个十分重要但又是一个难点问题。本文提出了1个基于卫星遥感和地面观测的参数化方案,并把其应用于沙特阿拉伯吉达地区,利用1个景的陆地资源卫星Landsat-7E^TM^ 资料进行了分析研究,得到了一些有关临海沙漠地区非均匀地表区域地表特征参数、植被参数和地表能量通量的新概念。最后讨论了所提出的参数化方案的适用范围和需改进之处。     

黄土高原陆-气相互作用预试验及其晴天地表能量特征分析

详细介绍了在2004年8月24日～9月11日在甘肃平凉进行的陆-气相互作用野外预试验,对观测仪器进行了对比和标定,并利用观测资料,初步分析了黄土高原塬上裸地、塬上和塬下玉米地的地表净辐射各分量、感热、潜热和地热流的特征。由于作物（玉米）的存在,降低了地表反射率,使白天地面向上短波减少,同时向上长波也减少,增大了地表净辐射,地表潜热明显增大,玉米地白天向下的地热流和夜晚向上的地热流都比裸地小。与塬上相比,塬下玉米地的向下短波略小,向上短波明显偏小,向上长波基本一致;净辐射只在中午附近略小,地热流上午偏小,下午偏大,夜晚基本一致;感热和潜热在白天基本一致;塬下玉米地在凌晨明显存在负感热通量。     

青藏高原湿地土壤冻结、融化期间的陆面过程特征

利用青藏高原中部玉树隆宝湿地2015年7月-2016年7月的观测资料,分析了土壤冻结、融化前后土壤温、湿度和地表能量收支特征,结果表明：冻土持续时期为12月至次年4月,深层土壤的冻结较浅层土壤滞后,融化过程快于冻结过程,5-40 cm土壤全部冻结历时51 d,全部融化历时19 d。土壤体积含水量年变化幅度达0.6 m³/m³。冻结过程5-40 cm土壤体积含水量下降,融化过程5-10 cm土壤体积含水量升高。土壤冻结之后,感热通量白天的值升高,潜热通量白天的值降低,净辐射和土壤热通量均降低,土壤热通量日变化幅度增大。土壤融化之后,潜热通量、净辐射和土壤热通量白天的值升高。地表反照率、鲍恩比、土壤热导率和土壤热扩散率冻结后增大融化后减小,土壤热容量冻结后减小融化后增大。     

黄土高原塬区地表辐射和热量平衡观测与分析

利用2005年夏季黄土高原塬区陆面过程野外试验(LOPEX05)的观测资料,初步分析了甘肃平凉黄土高原塬区地表辐射收支和热量平衡特征。结果显示,黄土高原塬区地面长波辐射大于大气长波辐射,典型晴天、阴天和雨天情况下两者平均差值分别为65,25和8 W.m-2;对于地气能量交换各个分量而言,黄土高原塬上和塬下在相同下垫面下的差别不大,但裸地和有植被的下垫面差别很明显;在白天,潜热在净辐射中所占的比重较大,其次是感热,最后是土壤热通量。对能量平衡中的储存项如热通量板上层土壤的热存储和植被冠层存储进行了估算,结果表明,土壤的热储存项在-30~70W.m-2之间,而植被的热能储存项在-10~25 W.m-2之间。在考虑估算的存储项之后,能量平衡散布图斜率由0.68提高到0.79,相关系数R由0.90提高到0.93,两者分别提高了11.0%和3.0%,并对能量不平衡有明显的改进,说明能量储存项在地表能量闭合中必须考虑。     

甘肃马衔山区陆面过程与降水的研究

采用定西的麦田微气象观测,定西、兰州的辐射观测和马衔山区34个气象、水文和雨量站的气候资料,结合NOAA-16卫星的AVHRR资料以及反演的地表植被盖度和反射率,并用SEBAL算法推导出夏季地表净辐射、感热、潜热、土壤热通量密度的区域分布特征,并分析陆面过程对降水的影响。结果表明:本区降水的空间分布与夏季植被盖度对应最好,相关系数高达0.722,其次是土壤热通量和潜热通量,相关系数分别为-0.65和0.615。这表明森林通过降低地表反射率和表面温度,不仅增加地表净辐射,而且减少其用于感热和土壤热通量的消耗。由于林区地表水分多,从而将接收较多的太阳辐射能主要用于蒸散,增加边界层中的水汽。故林区降水远大于植被稀疏的半干旱黄土梁。     

高光谱遥感在农作物长势监测中的应用

该研究是加拿大Saskatchewan Scott农作物轮作系统(ACS)研究的一部分。研究始于1994年,历时18a,评价9个可耕种农作物产量系统的可靠性。由3种处理水平(organic,reduced,high)和3种作物多样性水平(low,diversified annual grains,diversified annual perennials)结合而产生的9个农作物产量系统,被用于监测和评价加拿大牧场不同处理和不同作物种植轮作下可耕种农作物的产量。在2003年生长季共收集了3次叶面积指数和光谱反射率的数据:生长季前期(6月)、生长季旺盛期(7月)、生长季后期(8月)。叶面积指数是由LAI-2000植物冠层分析仪监测的,光谱测量是由覆盖了350-2500 nm波长范围共2215个波段的ADS便携式高光谱仪完成的。结果显示,光学测量可以用于监测农作物生长状况的差异。从生长季的早期到中期,光谱和叶面积指数在不同处理下有显著差异。7月中期是用遥感资料监测农作物长势的最佳季节;红光波段与近红外波段反射率的比值和基于这两个波段构造的归一化植被指数,是检测农作物长势的最佳植被指数。     

Local boundary-layer development over burnt and unburnt tropical savanna: an observational study

Fire scars have the ability to radically alter the surface energy budget within a tropical savanna by reducing surface albedo, increasing available energy for partitioning into sensible and latent heat fluxes and increasing substrate heat flux. These changes have the potential to alter boundary-layer conditions and ultimately feedback to local and regional climate. We measured radiative and energy fluxes over burnt and unburnt tropical savanna near Howard Springs, Darwin, Australia. At the burnt site a low to moderate intensity fire, ranging between 1,000 and 3,500 kW m⁻¹, initially affected the land surface by removing all understorey vegetation, charring and blackening the ground surface, scorching the overstorey canopy and reducing the albedo. A reduction in latent heat fluxes to almost zero was seen immediately after the fire when the canopy was scorched. This was then followed by an increase in the sensible heat flux and a large increase in the ground heat flux over the burnt surface. Tethered balloon measurements showed that, despite the presence of pre-monsoonal rain events occurring during the measurement period, the lower boundary layer over the burnt site was up to 2^°C warmer than that over the unburnt site. This increase in boundary-layer heating when applied to fire scars at the landscape scale can have the ability to form or alter local mesoscale circulations and ultimately create a feedback to regional heating and precipitation patterns that may affect larger-scale processes such as the Australian monsoon.     

巴丹吉林沙漠不同下垫面辐射特征和地表能量收支分析

利用2009年夏季在内蒙古自治区阿拉善右旗境内巴丹吉林沙漠开展的"巴丹吉林沙漠陆-气相互作用观测试验"所取得的资料,对比分析了典型晴天条件下,巴丹吉林沙漠两种不同下垫面的辐射平衡特征和地表能量收支的日变化规律。结果表明,不同下垫面地表反射率具有明显的差异,沙漠反射率为0.33,湖区沙生芦苇反射率为0.23,沙漠反射率大于沙生芦苇反射率。巴丹吉林沙漠两种典型下垫面上,各辐射分量均具有相似的日变化特征,即白天大、夜间小。两种下垫面上的净辐射日变化与峰值基本相同,日积分值均约为8MJ.m-2。由于下垫面性质不同,地表能量的分配也不相同。沙漠主要以感热通量为主,地表热流量其次,潜热通量很小可以忽略不计;湖区以潜热通量为主,感热通量和地表热流量次之。     

A Vegetated Urban Canopy Model for Meteorological and Environmental Modelling

An urban canopy model is developed for use in mesoscale meteorological and environmental modelling. The urban geometry is composed of simple homogeneous buildings characterized by the canyon aspect ratio (h/w) as well as the canyon vegetation characterized by the leaf aspect ratio (σ _l ) and leaf area density profile. Five energy exchanging surfaces (roof, wall, road, leaf, soil) are considered in the model, and energy conservation relations are applied to each component. In addition, the temperature and specific humidity of canopy air are predicted without the assumption of thermal equilibrium. For radiative transfer within the canyon, multiple reflections for shortwave radiation and one reflection for longwave radiation are considered, while the shadowing and absorption of radiation due to the canyon vegetation are computed by using the transmissivity and the leaf area density profile function. The model is evaluated using field measurements in Vancouver, British Columbia and Marseille, France. Results show that the model quite well simulates the observations of surface temperatures, canopy air temperature and specific humidity, momentum flux, net radiation, and energy partitioning into turbulent fluxes and storage heat flux. Sensitivity tests show that the canyon vegetation has a large influence not only on surface temperatures but also on the partitioning of sensible and latent heat fluxes. In addition, the surface energy balance can be affected by soil moisture content and leaf area index as well as the fraction of vegetation. These results suggest that a proper parameterization of the canyon vegetation is prerequisite for urban modelling.