Numerical simulation of scattered light polarization in a developing convective cloud for millimeter wavelengths

The optical characteristics of scattered light polarization in a developing convective cloud for millimeter wavelengths are numerically studied using the convection jet model and Stokes parameters. The analysis revealed that the value of all polarization forms does not depend on the cloud droplet spectrum and wavelength in the lower layers of a convective cloud. As the cloud droplet size increases and the wavelength decreases, the polarizations of all forms vary greatly and may have several maxima. It is also demonstrated that the degree of partial polarization may make no sense in the Rayleigh region at the certain values of polarization parameters.     

双线偏振雷达资料在数值模式中的应用: 模拟器的构建

基于Rayleigh-Gans散射原理构造一个S波段双线偏振雷达模拟器。模拟器考虑了云冰、雪、雨和雹4种水凝物,以水凝物的混合比和数浓度以及水凝物粒子的轴比、相对介电常数、下落倾角为输入量,计算得到水平/垂直偏振反射率因子、差分反射率、比差分相位等偏振量。通过二维理想飑线模拟的试验结果表明,模拟器合理地再现了二维理想飑线系统成熟期的主要偏振特征:雹的反射率较高,差分反射率较低(又称Zdr洞);对流云区的Zdr柱;层云区的反射率和比差分相位的0℃层亮带特征;雨滴反射率与差分反射率因子的“雨线”统计特征。利用该模拟器建立了模式变量和偏振雷达观测的联系,有助于未来将偏振雷达观测资料应用于模式预报效果评估及对流尺度资料同化等方面的研究和应用。      

Three-Dimensional Calculation of Photolysis Frequencies in the Presence of Clouds and Impact on Photochemistry

For atmospheric photochemistry, clouds can significantly affect actinic flux distributions. In this paper, we examine the effects of convective clouds on the three-dimensional distribution of the spectral actinic flux and on photolysis frequencies for various chemical species. Three-dimensional solutions of the UV-VIS radiative transfer equation are produced using the Spherical Harmonic Discrete Ordinary Method solution technique. This solver uses as input the 3-D cloud characteristics simulated by a dynamical cloud model. The ultraviolet and visible spectra are divided into 5 intervals in order to explore the wavelength dependency of the cloud effect on the actinic flux. Results show that the distribution of the actinic flux over the cloud domain is far from homogeneous and depends primarily on the cloud extinction associated with the hydrometeors. Maximum actinic flux is found at the top edge of the cloud and is related to scattering by ice crystals. The actinic flux is enhanced by a factor of 2 to 5, compared to clear air values, above, at the top edge, and around the cloud. The 3-D actinic flux is used to calculate the photolysis rates for some chemical species (e.g. NO₂, O₃, and HCHO). Forcomputing photolysis rates, a discretized spectral representation of the absorption wavelengths is used in the model. The calculated photolysis rates are distributed inhomogeneously throughout the cloud, and maxima are found in regions where the actinic flux is enhancement is large. Temperature effects on absorption are found in the photolysis frequencies of some species. Finally, the potential importance of this photolysis enhancement on photochemistry is studied using box model simulations. Results show that enhanced OH concentrations are found in the upper troposphere (120–200%) overthe clouds and changes in ozone production rates (+15%) are obtained in quasi-steady state conditions.     

一次典型暴雨的TRMM卫星观测及特征分析

利用TRMM卫星探测结果来探讨2010年6月23日发生于湖南一次局地大暴雨的云物理特征.结果表明:(1)强降水系统由一个主降水云团和多个零散降水云团组成,降水系统中对流降水所占面积比层云降水面积小但对总降水量的贡献超过层云降水;(2)可降水冰的丰富区与强的对流上升区域相吻合,云水、云冰对降水产生的影响不大,可降水冰的强...     

庐山层状云和对流云雨滴谱比较分析

本文从庐山近3 a的雨滴谱观测资料中选取数例层状云降水和对流云降水个例,通过对两类云降水的平均雨滴谱分析拟合、各微物理量演变以及速度谱的对比研究,得出以下结论:庐山对流云降水的平均雨滴谱很宽,有直径大于10 mm的大雨滴出现。Γ分布,对层状云降水拟合,较MP分布差,而对对流云降水拟合,较MP分布好。两类云降水的雨强变化都是由最大雨滴直径和粒子数浓度共同决定的,但对于对流云降水,最大雨滴直径的决定作用更为重要。雨滴直径较小时,两类云降水的实测速度大于经验公式值;而雨滴直径较大时,实测速度值分布在经验公式曲线两侧,但对流云降水的分布偏差要大于层状云降水。     

用C波段双线偏振雷达研究冰雹云

本文计算了不同相态、不同形状的降水粒子对5.6cm,10.7cm雷达波的散射特性,并利用降水粒子散射特性及云雨雷达回波的Z_(DR)特征并结合地面降雹情况,分析并解释了1990年8月9日和8月30日甘肃省平凉两次雹暴过程的雷达RHI资料.我们推测:Z_(DR)值为负值的区域相应于降雹区,ZDR负值与大扁冰雹和小锥状冰雹关系密切;而雨区Z_(DR)具有较大正值,雨区大于5dB的Z_(DR)由直径D>0.5cm的雨滴所致.利用冰雹区和雨区Z_(DR)信息的不同可能识别降水粒子的相态.C波段双线偏振雷达和10cm波长雷达相比有独到之处:雨区Z_(DR)值较大,而冰雹区Z_(DR)值又较小,这更有利于研究云雨相态和空间结构.可以预期双线偏振雷达对防雹工作及云物理研究工作是有很大帮助的.     

基于珠澳双偏振雷达的初闪特征分析

利用2019年4-9月的闪电定位资料、珠澳双偏振雷达数据资料和TITAN的风暴追踪资料,分析了珠澳双偏振雷达150 km范围内初闪的闪电特征和初闪云团的风暴参数特征.结果表明:(1)初闪多为负闪,且负闪的闪电强度明显大于正闪;(2)海洋初闪多于陆地,其闪电强度、初闪云团的面积也均大于陆地初闪;(3)初闪云团的VIL值集...     

台风麦莎与赤道穿透对流云团的初步比较分析

利用TRMM卫星的测雨雷达、微波成像仪、可见光和红外扫描仪资料详细分析比较了麦莎台风和位于南海南部的赤道穿透对流云团(EPCC)的云高以及降水结构特征.首先,对热带地区对流层到平流层的过渡带(TTL)以及进入TTL的穿透对流云团进行了阐述和定义.然后,分析对比了赤道穿透对流云团和台风麦莎不同生命史阶段的云高、降水结构特征,分析对比结果表明:(1)在强降水区:麦莎台风和EPCC的云顶上部均出现了冰粒子散射现象,但EPCC的散射强度强,微波亮温值均低于180 K,并且其雷达云高和红外云顶亮温云高相差较大、云顶亮温曲线平缓.(2)EPCC的深对流数量四分比、穿透对流数量百分比、尤其是穿透对流数量占深对流数量比,都比麦莎台风各阶段的高;在麦莎台风和EPCC(10-20 km)云体中大部分云高集中在10-12 km,但EPCC(10-20 km)的云高谱相对具有连续性、相对较宽.(3)麦莎台风以层云降水为主,对总降水量的贡献中也是从云降水贡献大,但是EPCC中却是对流性降水的贡献大,且EPCC对流降水与层云降水的像素数量比值和降水量比值也比麦莎台风的3个时次都高.(4)EPCC的降水廓线深度无论是从云降水还是对流降水都比麦莎台风深,层云廓线深度达11 km,对流廓线深度达18 km.另外,从EPCC的穿透对流数量百分比比麦莎台风多,层云、对流降水廓线比麦莎台风深这几方面,一定程度上说明了EPCC的局部垂直对流强度比麦莎台风强.     

Interrelation between the Dynamic Structure and Water Content of Convective Clouds Based on Aircraft Observations

The spectral structure of turbulence (spectra and cospectra) and water content characteristics for convective clouds in the tropical region was analyzed using aircraft observations in the meteorological testbed over Cuba; the results are presented. The cospectra for vertical turbulent heat fluxes allow classifying convective clouds based on their development stage and revealing the stages of growth, stabilization, and dissipation of clouds. It is shown that the value of cloud air overheating as compared to the ambient space is a parameter defining the cloud development stage. The interrelation is revealed between the integral characteristics of turbulence and water content (the mean values and distribution functions of parameters) for different stages of development of convective clouds. The recommendations are formulated on using the data on the dynamic structure of clouds for weather modification activities. A method is proposed for the instrumental estimation of cloud suitability for seeding that is aimed at precipitation augmentation.     

微波成像仪通道对降水云参数响应的数值模拟研究

由于降水云类型和结构等的差异,将导致微波信号出现不同的响应,因此基于星载微波仪器观测结果对降水云参数进行反演仍是目前国际上的难题之一。为了解层云和对流云等两类降水云的TMI微波信号特点,本文以相应的结构模型为基础,利用微波辐射传输模式MWRT分别模拟了不同下垫面和降水云参数条件下的TMI各通道微波亮温,并分析了各种组合通道信号,包括反映发射信息的极化差D(洋面)及反映散射信息的高频极化校正亮温PCT85(洋面)和高低频率垂直极化差VFD(陆面)的变化情况,以此从理论上探讨可能的降水反演方法。研究结果表明:在洋面,D和PCT85均随降水率的升高而减小,其中D_(10)和PCT85都能很好地反映降水率的变化,但分别受地表状况和云体性质(冻结层高度和霰粒大小)的影响较大;D_(19)和D_(37)虽然对下垫面状况和冻结层高度都不甚敏感,但随降水率的增加,存在极化丧失现象,因此不适合反演降水。在陆面,较高频取85 GHz的VFD与降水率有很好的对应关系,随降水率的增长而增大,其中VFD37-85受地表状况影响最小,但受云体性质影响较大;37 GHz对液态水变化敏感,其发射效应易混淆散射信号,故较高频取37 GHz的VFD10-37和VFD19-37不适合研究降水与微波信号之间的关系;层云与对流云存在有无霰粒的差异,会对微波散射性质造成影响,导致PCT85和VED对层云降水率的响应要高于对流云。     

对流性降水云微波辐射特性

结合MM5模式和三维微波辐射传输模式, 对2003年7月9日宜昌地区一次典型的中尺度降水中心的对流性降水云微波辐射特性进行研究。结果表明:MM5模式模拟的降水量和落区与实况一致,模拟的水凝物廓线也与TMI反演值接近,85.5 GHz通道辐射亮温与TMI实测情况相近。85.5 GHz通道亮温与地面雨强相关性很弱, 受云中云冰和雪花的散射降温作用显著, 由于其他粒子的综合作用以及斜角观测造成的位置偏移, 霰粒子对该通道亮温散射作用不明显。19.35 GHz通道亮温随雨强增加先升温后降温; 与霰粒子含量表现出明显的负相关关系。37.0 GHz通道亮温随雨强的增加而降温, 雨强大于20 mm/h后达到饱和, 主要受雨水降温作用影响。倾斜观测比天顶垂直观测产生更低的亮温低值中心, 且频率越高, 低值中心的偏移越严重。     

Effect of clouds on the photodissociation of NO2: Observations and modelling

The role of clouds in photodissociation is examined by both modelling and observations. It is emphasized that the photodissociation rate is proportional to the actinic flux rather than to the irradiance. The actinic flux concerns the energy that is incident on a molecule, irrespective of the direction of incidence. The irradiance concerns the energy that is incident on a plane.As far as the modelling aspect is concerned, a multi-layer delta-Eddington model is used to calculate irradiances, actinic fluxes, and photodissociation rates of nitrogen dioxide J(NO₂) as a function of height in inhomogeneous atmospheres. For the considered wavelength interval [290–420 nm], Rayleigh scattering, ozone absorption, and Mie scattering and absorption by cloud drops and aerosols should be taken into account.Further, a three-layer model is used to calculate the actinic flux above and below a cloud, relative to the incident flux, in terms of cloud albedo, zenith angle, and the albedo of the underlying and overlying atmosphere. Cloud albedo is mainly determined by cloud optical thickness. An expression for the incloud actinic flux is given as a function of in-cloud optical thickness. The three-layer model seems to be a useful model for the estimation of photodissociation rates in dispersion models.It is stressed that both models in their present form cannot handle partial cloudiness.It is shown that if no clouds are present, the actinic flux depends primarily on solar zenith angle. Further, the incident flux at the top of the atmosphere diminishes downward into the atmosphere due to the increasing effect of scattering. Therefore, the actinic flux usually increases with height, although above clouds the actinic flux sometimes decreases with height due to a large contribution of the upward scattered light.For cloudy atmospheres, another important parameter with respect to the actinic flux is added: cloud optical thickness. Cloud optical thickness determines cloud albedo. It can be shown that incloud characteristics and cloud height are less important while describing the effect of a cloud on the actinic flux (outside the cloud). The in-cloud values of the actinic flux can exceed the values outside the cloud.Finally, using the photostationary state relationship, a comparison is performed between model results and ground-based measurements as well as in-cloud air craft measurements.     

Using Satellite Data to Analyze the Initiation and Evolution of Deep Convective Clouds

In this study, two deep convective cloud cases were analyzed in detail to study their initiation and evolution. In both cases, all deep convective clouds were positioned at the rear of the cold front cloud bands and propagated backward. Satellite data showed that prior to initiation of the deep convective clouds, thermodynamic and moist conditions were favorable for their formation. In the morning, a deep convective cloud at the rear of cold front cloud band propagated backward, the outflow boundary of which created favorable conditions for initiation. An additional deep convective cloud cluster moved in from the west and interacted with the outflow boundary to develop a mesoscale convective system（MCS） with large, ellipse-shaped deep convective clouds that brought strong rainfall. The initiation and evolution of these clouds are shown clearly in satellite data and provide significant information for nowcasting and short-term forecasting.     

一次东北冷涡云降水垂直结构特征分析

利用辽宁阜新国家站(121.7458°E,42.0672°N)的毫米波云雷达(8 mm)和微雨雷达(12.5 mm)对2020年8月12-13日东北冷涡影响下的一次降水过程进行了观测,分析了云降水的垂直结构特征并探讨了降水机制。结果表明：本次过程中,云水平方向发展不均匀,以层状云和层积混合云为主,云内有时还嵌有对流泡。云降水阶段性变化明显,先后出现了层状云降水、层积混合云降水和对流云降水。层状云降水和层积混合云降水均表现出明显的亮带特征,但层积混合云降水的雷达回波强度、回波顶高和降水强度明显大于层状云降水。对流云降水的雷达回波会因强降水而产生明显衰减,因此回波顶高不能表示出实际的云顶情况。层状云降水阶段,云雷达反射率随高度降低增长缓慢,雨滴在下落过程中受蒸发和碰并的共同作用,反射率降低。与层状云降水相比,层积混合云降水的碰并效应强,且由于前期降水对近地面的增湿作用,使云下蒸发弱。对流云降水阶段,反射率的增长主要发生在冰水混合层,有利于大滴的产生,拓宽了云滴谱,提高了碰并效率。     

一次弱对流天气降雹成灾的雷达回波特征分析

通过对新疆玛河流域一次冰雹天气雷达资料及地面实况资料的分析,研究弱对流云降雹的雷达反射率因子与径向速度场的回波特征,进一步探讨弱对流云降雹与0℃层高度较低及垂直风切变的关系：弱对流天气当日零度层高度值可作为分析弱冰雹云的依据;高低空风速的差异形成的风切变造成的动压力产生垂直加速度,使对流运动得到加强和维持,也是此次降雹的动力机制。分析此次天气,揭示了新疆玛河流域弱对流云降雹天气过程生消的一些重要特征和变化,对雹云的识别和分析具有一定的指导意义。     

豫北一次局地雹暴天气的预警特征和触发机制

利用常规气象观测、多普勒雷达、卫星资料和区域自动站观测资料及NCEP再分析资料,对2011年6月11日豫北局地强对流天气的预报预警特征和触发机制进行分析。结果表明：局地强对流天气是在东北冷涡背景下产生的,高低层中尺度影响系统(槽、切变线、大风速轴)交汇处右侧是强对流发生潜势区。局地强对流天气发生前,CAPE较大,0-6 km垂直风切变达到中等偏强,有利于超级单体的形成和发展。高空冷平流南侵、低层暖平流北上,有利于大气对流不稳定度进一步加大。中-β尺度强对流云团在东北冷涡槽底后部形成,其发展演变对局地强对流天气预报预警有参考意义。强对流回波经历了细胞状、带状发展期和块状减弱期。回波带南侧形成的超级单体造成了局地强风雹天气,冰雹发生时伴有“三体散射”现象。冷空气和地面辐合线是强对流天气的主要触发机制;地面辐合线对强对流天气还有提示作用。     

基于FY-2D的新疆强对流云的识别

利用2007-2013年新疆的十场强对流天气过程以及与之相应的FY-2D静止气象卫星数据,分析了强对流云红外一通道、红外二通道、水汽通道及通道差的光谱特征,提取强对流云团样本点,采用统计方法确定判识指标的阈值范围,构建多通道多阈值判识方法。利用三场天气过程的地面实测降水资料分别验证了单时次和整场天气过程强对流云判识的准确性,结果表明：单时次强对流云的识别区域与发生降雨台站一致的准确率为83%;在整个天气过程中,强对流频次分布与降水实况吻合度较高,说明随着对流云团的移动和发展,判识区域与地面降水区域保持一致,验证了判识方法有效,阈值选取合理,可以为监测暴雨天气系统的发生、发展提供支持。     

基于云雷达和降水雷达资料的一次典型暖云降水成因及粒子类型演变

针对2020年8月9日南京市一次典型对流性暖云降水过程,结合云雷达和双偏振降水雷达资料,研究了此次短时强降水的雷达回波特征和成因;基于雷达参量和模糊逻辑算法识别了水凝物粒子类型,并分析了降水过程中水凝物粒子的性质和演变.结果 表明:此次降水强度大、效率高,雷达观测的云体回波呈现低质心、强回波的热带型结构.正负速度对的出...     

The Impact of Non-Lambertian Wavelength-Dependent Reflecting Surfaces on Stratospheric Radiation and Photochemistry

We have developed models of physically-based cloud and ocean surfacesfor use in photochemical models. These surface models are described in termsof a flux albedo and a normalized reflection function.Through these, the dependence of albedo on wavelength, solar zenithangle, cloud optical depth (cloud surfaces) and surface windspeed (ocean surfaces) are allowed for. In addition, the non-Lambertian nature of these surfaces is accounted for.We have integrated these surfacemodels into a multiple scattering radiative transfer model to assess their effects on the stratospheric radiation field and J-values. This was accomplished by comparison with results obtainedusing Lambertian, constant albedo surfaces. Comparisons of stratospheric radiation fields revealed that boththe wavelength and directional dependences of the cloud and oceansurfaces could be large effects.Differences between calculated J-values varied from 0 to 12% depending upon species, solar zenith angle, andheight.The J-values were then used as input for a chemical box model to examine the effects these surfaces had on stratospheric chemistry. Comparisons were made against box model runs using J-values fromconstant surfaces. Overall, the effect was on the order of 10%.Differences in number densities using these different surfacesvaried with latitude, height and species.Runs were made with and without heterogeneous chemistry.     

Contribution of the ground corona ions to the convective charging mechanism

The convective charging mechanism of thunderclouds is based on the vertical transport of space charge generated by corona from ground irregularities under the influence of the surface electric field. The present work estimates the amount of charge which is expected to reach cloud base by conduction and convection processes during the lifetime of a thunderstorm. This estimate is made using the numerical model PICASSO, previously designed to characterize the evolution of this corona space charge between ground level and cloud base. Experimentally determined values of surface electric field are introduced into the model in order to initiate the computation. These values are based on six events documented during four different field experiments carried out in Florida and in France. As an upper limit, the convective transport is uniformly applied as a linearly increasing vertical air speed profile and competes with the conductive transport. The fraction of the positive charge generated at the surface by corona which finally reaches the upper limit of the layer varies between 26 and 86%, essentially depending on the electric field evolution at altitude. Assuming that the vertical transport conditions remain the same over an area of 10 km×10 km, the overall charge amount can be roughly estimated. It ranges between about 63 and over 300 C. Because the present assumptions probably lead to an overestimate of these amounts, such a range suggests that the convective charging mechanism is unlikely to be able to account for the major electrification process of the thundercloud. However, it could be considered as a relevant mechanism contributing to the lower positive charge center of the thundercloud, often observed close to cloud base.