Frozen ground and periglacial processes relationship in temperate high mountains: a case study at Monte Perdido-Tucarroya area(The Pyrenees,Spain)

Seasonally frozen ground,mountain permafrost and cryogenic geomorphological processes are important components of the Pyrenean high mountains.This work presents the results of a study on the distribution of frozen ground in a marginal and paraglacial environment of temperate mountains.An inventory was made of landforms and indicators of frozen ground,and frozen ground was mapped accordingly.During 2014 and 2016 ground temperatures and thermal regimes were monitored,basal temperatures of snow-cover(BTS)were measured and a thermal map was drawn.Differential thermal behaviours were detected among different elevations and slope orientations.Periglacial processes are the most widespread,in which frost weathering and nivation,together with gelifluction and cryoturbation,are the most efficient processes;the latter two are generally linked to the presence of frozen ground.The fall in air and ground temperatures with altitude,slope orientations,and snowpack thickness and evolution determine ground thermal regimes.In the study area,three types of thermal regimes were established:climate-controlled,snowcover-controlled,and frozen ground-controlled.Seasonally frozen ground occurs across a broad range of elevation between 2650 and 3075 m asl,whereas possible permafrost only occurs above 2750 m asl.     

Changes in the depths of seasonal freezing and thawing and their effects on vegetation in the Three-River Headwater Region of the Tibetan Plateau

Frozen ground degradation plays an important role in vegetation growth and activity in high-altitude cold regions. This study estimated the spatiotemporal variations in the active layer thickness(ALT) of the permafrost region and the soil freeze depth(SFD) in the seasonally frozen ground region across the Three Rivers Source Region(TRSR) from 1980 to 2014 using the Stefan equation, and differentiated the effects of these variations on alpine vegetation in these two regions. The results showed that the average ALT from 1980 to 2014 increased by23.01 cm/10 a, while the average SFD decreased by 3.41 cm/10 a, and both changed intensively in the transitional zone between the seasonally frozen ground and permafrost. From 1982-2014, the increase in the normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI)and the advancement of the start of the vegetation growing season(SOS) in the seasonally frozen ground region(0.0078/10 a, 1.83 d/10 a) were greater than those in the permafrost region(0.0057/10 a,0.39 d/10 a). The results of the correlation analysis indicated that increases in the ALT and decreases in the SFD in the TRSR could lead to increases in the NDVI and advancement of the SOS. Surface soil moisture played a critical role in vegetation growth in association with the increasing ALT and decreasing SFD. The NDVI for all vegetation types in the TRSR except for alpine vegetation showed an increasing trend that was significantly related to the SFD and ALT. During the study period, the general frozen ground conditions were favorable to vegetation growth, while the average contributions of ALT and SFD to the interannual variation in the NDVI were greater than that of precipitation but less than that of temperature.     

Different Responses of Vegetation to Frozen Ground Degradation in the Source Region of the Yellow River from 1980 to 2018

Frozen ground degradation under a warming climate profoundly influences the growth of alpine vegetation in the source region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. This study investigated spatiotemporal variations in the frozen ground distribution, the active layer thickness(ALT) of permafrost(PF) soil and the soil freeze depth(SFD) in seasonally frozen soil from 1980 to 2018 using the temperature at the top of permafrost(TTOP) model and Stefan equation. We compared the effects of these variations on vegetation growth among different frozen ground types and vegetation types in the source region of the Yellow River(SRYR). The results showed that approximately half of the PF area(20.37% of the SRYR) was projected to degrade into seasonally frozen ground(SFG) during the past four decades; furthermore, the areal average ALT increased by 3.47 cm/yr, and the areal average SFD decreased by 0.93 cm/yr from 1980 to 2018. Accordingly, the growing season Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI) presented an increasing trend of 0.002/10 yr, and the increase rate and proportion of areas with NDVI increase were largest in the transition zone where PF degraded to SFG(the PF to SFG zone). A correlation analysis indicated that variations in ALT and SFD in the SRYR were significantly correlated with increases of NDVI in the growing season. However, a rapid decrease in SFD(-1.4 cm/10 yr) could have reduced the soil moisture and, thus, decreased the NDVI. The NDVI for most vegetation types exhibited a significant positive correlation with ALT and a negative correlation with SFD. However, the steppe NDVI exhibited a significant negative correlation with the SFD in the PF to SFG zone but a positive correlation in the SFG zone, which was mainly limited by water condition because of different change rates of the SFD.     

Mapping the vegetation distribution of the permafrost zone on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

In this paper,an updated vegetation map of the permafrost zone in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau(QTP) was delineated.The vegetation map model was extracted from vegetation sampling with remote sensing(RS) datasets by decision tree method.The spatial resolution of the map is 1 km×1 km,and in it the alpine swamp meadow is firstly distinguished in the high-altitude areas.The results showed that the total vegetated area in the permafrost zone of the QTP is 1,201,751 km~2.In the vegetated region,50,260 km~2 is the areas of alpine swamp meadow,583,909 km~2 for alpine meadow,332,754 km~2 for alpine steppe,and 234,828 km~2 for alpine desert.This updated vegetation map in permafrost zone of QTP could provide more details about the distribution of alpine vegetation types for studying the vegetation mechanisms in the land surface processes of highaltitude areas.     

PERMAFROST DEGENERATION IN THE EAST OF QINGHAI-XIZANG PLATEAU

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福建省地表温度与植被覆盖度的相关性分析

地表温度（Land surface Tenperature, LST）和植被覆盖度（Fractional Vegetation Coverage, FVC)是生态环境变化的重要指标因子,研究两者的时空变化及相互关系对评价区域生态环境建设、改善区域生态环境具有重要意义。本文以福建省为研究区域,利用2001-2015年MODIS 11A2 LST和13Q1 NDVI数据,在时序数据重构的基础上对福建省LST时空变化及LST与FVC的相互关系进行分析。结果表明：①2001-2015年福建省LST总体呈轻微下降趋势,尤其是2010年之后其LST明显降低。LST与FVC的空间分布具有较好的负相关一致性：在FVC较高的区域,LST值较低;在FVC较低的区域,LST较高。② LST与FVC、DEM和纬度均成负相关关系,且负相关性在一年之中随着月份的变化而呈规律性增加或降低。夏季FVC对LST的负相关性最大为0.7,冬季FVC对LST的负相关性降低为0.4。③LST随着FVC增加而降低的趋势呈现分段线性关系,存在“FVC拐点”。“FVC拐点”前后随着FVC增加LST的降低速率在夏季 “先慢后快”,而在冬季则“先快后慢”。春秋两季,LST随着FVC增加而降低的速率在“FVC拐点”前后差异变小。在夏季,当FVC大于0.4时,FVC每增加0.1可降低LST约0.77 °C,降温效果大约是FVC小于0.4时的2倍。因此如果要有效地降低夏季地表高温,要使地表植被覆盖大于40%,才能较好的发挥植被的降温的作用。④在1-8月份,FVC对LST的负相关作用存在滞后性,FVC变化对滞后一个月的LST时空分布影响更大。研究成果对福建省生态环境建设与评估具有一定的意义,对于发挥植被对区域高温抑制作用提供了重要的参考依据。     

Spatial variability and its main controlling factors of the permafrost soil-moisture on the northern-slope of Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The soil moisture movement is an important carrier of material cycle and energy flow among the various geo-spheres in the cold regions. Thus, this research takes the north slope of Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau as a case study. The present study firstly investigates the change of permafrost moisture in different slope positions and depths. Based on this investigation, this article attempts to investigate the spatial variability of permafrost moisture and identifies the key influence factors in different terrain conditions. The method of classification and regression tree (CART) is adopted to identify the main controlling factors influencing the soil moisture movement. The relationships between soil moisture and environmental factors are revealed by the use of the method of canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). The results show that: 1) Due to the terrain slope and the freezing-thawing process, the horizontal flow weakens in the freezing period. The vertical migration of the soil moisture movement strengthens. It will lead to that the soil-moisture content in the up-slope is higher than that in the down-slope. The conclusion is contrary during the melting period. 2) Elevation, soil texture, soil temperature and vegetation coverage are the main environmental factors which affect the slope-permafrost soil-moisture. 3) Slope, elevation and vegetation coverage are the main factors that affect the slope-permafrost soil-moisture at the shallow depth of 0-20 cm. It is complex at the middle and lower depth.     

融入土壤湿度指标的青藏高原近地表土壤冻融机器学习监测算法

青藏高原作为中低纬度地区最大的高山冻土区,多年冻土和季节冻土广泛分布。高精度的地表冻融监测结果对研究该区域的水热交换、碳氮循环和土壤冻融侵蚀非常重要。本文基于4个青藏高原典型地区的土壤温湿度观测网数据,开展利用LightGBM算法和随机森林算法进行土壤冻融循环监测的研究。在构建土壤冻融监测模型的过程中,发现土壤湿度是影响冻融判别的一个关键因子。使用AMSR2亮温数据和ERA5-Land土壤湿度数据,基于两种机器学习算法判别地表冻融状态,将结果与传统冻融判别式算法进行对比分析。结果表明：相比冻融判别式算法,LightGBM算法在白天和夜间的总体判对率提高了12.09%;14.45%,随机森林算法在白天和夜间的总体判对率提高了13.23%和14.96%。近80%的错分样本分布在-4.0 ℃~4.0 ℃之间,说明2个机器学习算法能够识别出稳定的土壤冻结状态和融化状态。另外,LightGBM算法和随机森林算法得到的日冻融转换天数的平均RMSE降低了112.82和117.00;冻结天数的平均RMSE降低了47.87和53.96;融化天数的平均RMSE降低了37.10和39.80。同时,基于随机森林算法计算了2014年7月—2015年6月青藏高原冻结天数、融化天数、日冻融转换天数。得到的青藏高原冻结天数图,以中国冻土区划图为参考进行精度评价,总体分类精度为96.78%。     

改进的DisTrad模型在地形起伏区地表温度空间分辨率提升的应用

DisTrad（Disaggregation procedure for radiometric surface temperature）模型是常用于遥感地表温度空间分辨率提升的主要模型之一。DisTrad模型常面向空间范围有限、地形相对平坦的研究区域,且常选用植被参数（如植被指数或植被覆盖度等）作为关键参数。然而在空间范围较大、地形起伏地区,地表温度的空间变异可能无法完全通过植被参数解释。本研究选取四川盆地及毗邻地区为研究区,通过模拟数据研究DisTrad模型在地形起伏区地表温度空间分辨率提升中的适用性。数字高程模型（Digital Elevation Model,DEM）、归一化差值植被指数（Normalized Difference Vegetation Index,NDVI）等参数,采用滑动窗口逐步回归,将空间分辨率为6km的地表温度提升至空间分辨率为1km。研究结果表明,改进的模型在平原及海拔较低的高原地区提升获得的地表温度空间分辨率具有较高精度,均方根误差（Root Mean Square Error,RMSE）为0.5K左右;在地形起伏较大的地区,RMSE为4K,验证了改进的模型提升的可行性。     

泛北极多年冻土及重大线性工程稳定性状况

泛北极是中国"一带一路"倡议的主要合作示范区域,已有的重大线性工程及新的基础设施建设均面临着与多年冻土相关的冻融灾害及工程病害问题.在全球气候变暖及人类活动增强的背景下,泛北极多年冻土主要呈现地温升高、活动层厚度增加趋势,且低温多年冻土地温升高更加明显,20世纪70年代以来年平均地温(MAGT)升温最高可达3℃;自北向...     

Impact of land cover change on land surface temperature: A case study of Spiti Valley

Land surface temperature(LST) is the skin temperature of the earth surface. LST depends on the amount of sunlight received by any geographical area. Apart from sun light, LST is also affected by the land cover, which leads to change in land surface temperature. Impact of land cover change(LCC) on LST has been assessed using Landsat TM5, Landsat 8 TIRS/OLI and Digital Elevation Model(ASTER) for Spiti Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India. In the present study, Spiti valley was divided into three altitudinal zones to check the pattern of changing land cover along different altitudes and LST was calculated for all the four land cover categories extracted from remote sensing data for the years of 1990 and 2015. Matrix table was used as a technique to evaluate the land cover change between two different years. Matrix table shows that as a whole, about 2,151,647 ha(30%) area of Spiti valley experienced change in land cover in the last 25 years. The result also shows vegetation and water bodies increased by 107,560.2 ha(605.87%) and 45 ha(0.98%), respectively. Snow cover and barren land decreased by 19,016.5 ha(23.92%) and 88,589(14.14%), during the study period. A significant increase has been noticed in vegetation amongst all land cover types. Minimum, maximum and mean LST for three altitudinal zones have been calculated. The mean LST recorded was 11℃ in 1990 but it rose by 2℃ and reached to 13℃ in 2015. Changes in LST were obtained for each land cover categories. The mean temperature of different land cover types was calculated by averaging value of all pixels of a given land cover types. The mean LST of vegetation, barren land, snow cover and water body increased by 6℃, 9℃, 1℃, and 7℃, respectively. Further, relationships between LST, Normalized Difference Snow Index(NDSI), and Normalised Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI) were established using Linear Regression.     

Symbiosis of marshes and permafrost in Da and Xiao Hinggan Mountains in northeastern China

Recently, the degradation of permafrost and marsh environments in the Da and Xiao Hinggan Mountains has become a great concern as more human activities and pronounced climate warming were observed during the past 30 years and projected for the near future. The distr/bution patterns and development mechanisms of the permafrost and marshes have been examined both in theories and in field observations, in order to better understand the symbiosis of permafrost and marshes. The permafrost and marshes in the Da and Xiao Hinggan Mountains display discernible zonations in latitude and elevation. The marsh vegetation canopy, litter and peat soil have good thermal insulation properties for the underlying permafrost, resulting in a thermal offset of 3 ℃ to 4℃ and subsequently suppressing soil temperature. In addition, the much higher thermal conductivity of frozen and ice-rich peat in the active layer is conducive to the development or in favor of the protection of permafrost due to the semi-conductor properties of the soils overlying the permafrost. On the other hand, because permafrost is almost impervious, the osmosis of water in marsh soils can be effectively reduced, timely providing water supplies for helophytes growth or germination in spring. In the Da and Xiao Hinggan Mountains, the permafrost degradation has been accelerating due to the marked climate warming, ever increasing human activities, and the resultant eco-environmental changes. Since the permafrost and marsh environments are symbiotic and interdependent, they need to be managed or protected in a well-coordinated and integrated way.     

地表温度扰动特性及其与建设用地扩张的关系

河口地区是人口密集、经济繁荣的区域之一,同时也是生态环境脆弱区,易受到人类活动带来的负面影响,其中热环境恶化问题尤其突出。本文基于多源遥感影像数据,结合遥感技术和统计学方法,研究城市化进程中闽江河口地区20年来的地表温度变化特性;利用Moran's I指数分析研究区表面温度的空间集聚特性及其产生的尺度效应,并定量分析表面温度与不同景观类型的相关性。结果表明：① 1993-2013年,闽江河口地区建设用地面积大幅增加,经历了由慢至快,而后稳中有升的过程;城市扩张是通过大量大规模的边缘式扩张实现的,东部、西部和南部是扩张的3个主要方向。② 地表温度空间格局变化明显,次高温区和高温区显著增加,次低温区和中温区减少,低温区变化不大;高温区扩散方向与建设用地扩张方向基本一致。③ 地表温度存在明显的扰动现象,表现为靠近主城区剧烈,城郊和郊区相对和缓的特性,同时地表温度空间格局具有显著的空间聚集性。④ 建设用地扩张是地表温度增强的重要原因,林/草地和水域能有效缓解区域高温;耕地并未表现出显著的降温效果,但随着耕地比重的增加,地表温度逐渐趋于稳定。研究结果可为改善城市热环境、促进区域可持续发展提供有益参考。     

Modelling plant canopy effects on water-heat exchange in the freezingthawing processes of active layer on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The effect of vegetation on the water-heat exchange in the freezing-thawing processes of active layer is one of the key issues in the study of land surface processes and in predicting the response of alpine ecosystems to climate change in permafrost regions. In this study, we used the simultaneous heat and water model to investigate the effects of plant canopy on surface and subsurface hydrothermal dynamics in the Fenghuoshan area of the QinghaiTibet Plateau by changing the leaf area index(LAI) and keeping other variables constant. Results showed that the sensible heat, latent heat and net radiation are increased with an increase in the LAI. However, the ground heat flux decreased with an increasing LAI. The annual total evapotranspiration and vegetation transpiration ranged from-16% to 9% and-100% to 15%, respectively, in response to extremes of doubled and zero LAI, respectively. There was a negative feedback between vegetation and the volumetric unfrozen water content at 0.2 m through changing evapotranspiration. The simulation results of soil temperature and moisture suggest that better vegetation conditions are conducive to maintaining the thermal stability of the underlying permafrost, and the advanced initial thawing time and increasing thawing rate of soil ice with the increase in the LAI may have a great influence on the timing and magnitude of supra-permafrost groundwater. This study quantifies the impact of vegetation change on surface and subsurface hydrothermal processes and provides a basic understanding for evaluating the impact of vegetation degradation on the water-heat exchange in permafrost regions under climate change.     

Cryostructures and ground ice content in ice-rich permafrost area of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau with Computed Tomography Scanning

Permafrost is an important part of the cryosphere, playing an integral role in the hydrologic cycle, ecology, and influencing human activity. Melting of ground ice can drastically change landscapes and associated thaw subsidence may induce instability of infrastructure. The terrain conditions on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau are complex, and the spatial distribution of ground ice is highly variable, so knowledge of its abundance and variability is required for impact assessments relating to the degradation of permafrost. This study examined 55 permafrost samples from warm, ice-rich permafrost region in Beiluhe Basin, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The samples were examined using Computed Tomography scanning, and the ice content and cryostructure were determined. The results indicated that: 1) variation in volumetric ice content was considerable(0%-70%), with a mean value of 17%; 2) seven cryostructures were identified, including crustal, vein, lenticular, ataxitic, reticulate and layered cryostructure; 3) volumetric ice content varied by cryostructure, with the highest associated with layered and ataxitic cryostructures. Volumetric ice contents were lowest for samples with pore and lenticular cryostructures. This work provides detailed ground ice content and will be helpful for assessing thaw subsidence and infrastructure stability on Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.     

成都市热岛效应与城市空间发展关系分析

利用Landsat卫星影像反演成都市中心城区1992、2001和2009年的地表温度,建筑用地和植被等信息,计算其城市热岛比例指数(URI),对成都市中心城区热岛效应与城市空间发展关系进行了分析。结果表明,在1992-2009年期间成都市主城区范围从91.24km2扩展到403.8km2。成都市建成区的大面积扩展导致了城市热岛空间分布发生迁移,从单中心聚集分布转变为多中心环状分布。回归分析说明,建筑用地和植被都是影响地表温度的重要因素,其中建筑用地与地表温度呈指数型正相关关系,而植被与地表温度呈负相关关系。总的看来,成都市中心城区在这17年间的热岛效应有了明显的缓解,城市热岛比例指数从0.72下降到0.33。城市植被覆盖率的增加和合理的规划对缓解城市热岛效应起到了积极的作用。     

Thermal dynamics of the permafrost active layer under increased precipitation at the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Precipitation has a significant influence on the hydro-thermal state of the active layer in permafrost regions, which disturbs the surface energy balance, carbon flux, ecosystem, hydrological cycles and landscape processes. To better understand the hydro-thermal dynamics of active layer and the interactions between rainfall and permafrost, we applied the coupled heat and mass transfer model for soil-plant-atmosphere system into high-altitude permafrost regions in this study. Meteorological data, soil temperature, heat flux and moisture content from different depths within the active layer were used to calibrate and validate this model. Thereafter, the precipitation was increased to explore the effect of recent climatic wetting on the thermal state of the active layer. The primary results demonstrate that the variation of active layer thickness under the effect of short-term increased precipitation is not obvious, while soil surface heat flux can show the changing trends of thermal state in active layer, which should not be negligible. An increment in year-round precipitation leads to a cooling effect on active layers in the frozen season, i.e. verifying the insulating effect of "snow cover". However, in the thawed season, the increased precipitation created a heating effect on active layers, i.e. facilitating the degradation of permafrost. The soil thermal dynamic in single precipitation event reveals that the precipitation event seems to cool the active layer, while compared with the results under increased precipitation, climatic wetting trend has a different influence on the permafrost evolution.     

An Estimation of Ground Ice Volumes in Permafrost Layers in Northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China

The ground ice content in permafrost serves as one of the dominant properties of permafrost for the study of global climate change, ecology, hydrology and engineering construction in cold regions. This paper initially attempts to assess the ground ice volume in permafrost layers on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau by considering landform types, the corresponding lithological composition, and the measured water content in various regions. An approximation demonstrating the existence of many similarities in lithological composition and water content within a unified landform was established during the calculations. Considerable knowledge of the case study area, here called the Source Area of the Yellow(Huanghe) River(SAYR) in the northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, has been accumulated related to permafrost and fresh water resources during the past 40 years. Considering the permafrost distribution, extent, spatial distribution of landform types, the ground ice volume at the depths of 3.0–10.0 m below the ground surface was estimated based on the data of 101 boreholes from field observations and geological surveys in different types of landforms in the permafrost region of the SAYR. The total ground ice volume in permafrost layers at the depths of 3.0–10.0 m was approximately(51.68 ± 18.81) km~3, and the ground ice volume per unit volume was(0.31 ± 0.11) m~3/m~3. In the horizontal direction, the ground ice content was higher in the landforms of lacustrine-marshland plains and alluvial-lacustrine plains, and the lower ground ice content was distributed in the erosional platforms and alluvial-proluvial plains. In the vertical direction, the volume of ground ice was relatively high in the top layers(especially near the permafrost table) and at the depths of 7.0–8.0 m. This calculation method will be used in the other areas when the necessary information is available, including landform type, borehole data, and measured water content.     

基于马尔可夫链和最大后验准则的模拟静止气象卫星数据地表组分温度反演

地表组分温度比像元混合温度具有更强的物理意义和实用价值,是定量遥感反演的一个重要研究方向。本文以马尔可夫链和最大后验准则地表温度尺度转换方法,结合静止气象卫星数据高时间分辨率的特点,通过模拟静止气象卫星数据地表组分温度反演进行分析和验证。在研究过程中,地面被简化为由植被和土壤两组分组成,同时假设邻近像元的植被和土壤组分温度相同。鉴此,本文通过模拟构建20×20像元大小的静止气象卫星混合像元图像,并对各像元各时刻温度添加均值为0标准差为2K的随机误差,最终应用所提算法估算各像元各时刻的植被和土壤组分温度大小。精度分析结果表明,该算法能够较为精确地反演植被和土壤组分温度,且误差基本控制在2K以内。此外,本文还进一步讨论了算法的适用性及其对混合像元温度误差、植被覆盖度误差,以及邻近像元植被覆盖度变化范围的敏感度。分析结果再次证明,该方法对混合像元温度误差和植被覆盖度误差都具有较低的敏感性,在最大温度误差条件(均值为1.8K,标准差为5K)和最大植被覆盖度误差(均值为0.18,标准差为0.2)的条件下,各组分温度的估算精度分别能控制在3K和2K以内,满足精度要求。但是,由于组分温度初值的确定方法,对所计算窗口内植被覆盖度变化范围有较强的敏感性,反演结果与植被覆盖度变化范围相关,要求窗口内植被覆盖度变化范围足够大才能满足初值估算的精度要求。     

基于OpenStreetMap和90 m SRTM的地面站导航 电子地图实现

地面站导航电子地图是操作员用来监控无人驾驶装备的唯一平台,也是进行线路规划和自主决策的重要信息源。现有的导航电子地图一般存在价格昂贵、对高程数据支持不足以及依赖互联网等缺陷。本文提出了一种新的基于OpenStreetMap的地面站导航电子地图实现方法。首先,利用原始OSM数据搭建地图瓦片服务后台;然后将90 m SRTM高程数据处理成地形阴影和地形颜色渐变栅格文件;针对每个栅格文件,在瓦片服务后台的样式配置文件中添加相应图层并定义其渲染格式;最后,在地面站软件中实现地图客户端模块,向瓦片服务后台请求瓦片,并显示在地面站界面上。利用该方法实现的地面站导航电子地图可以提供0~18个缩放级别的中国范围的数据,显示0~13个缩放级别的立体地形地貌,并且无需互联网支持。本文使用该方法实现了某型无人机的地面站导航电子地图模块,并成功应用该无人机仿真系统。