The influence of seasonal snow on soil thermal and water dynamics under different vegetation covers in a permafrost region

Seasonal snow is one of the most important influences on the development and distribution of permafrost and the hydrothermal regime in surface soil. Alpine meadow, which constitutes the main land type in permafrost regions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, was selected to study the influence of seasonal snow on the temperature and moisture in active soil layers under different vegetation coverage. Monitoring sites for soil moisture and temperature were constructed to observe the hydrothermal processes in active soil layers under different vegetation cover with seasonal snow cover variation for three years from 2010 to 2012. Differences in soil temperature and moisture in areas of diverse vegetation coverage with varying levels of snow cover were analyzed using active soil layer water and temperature indices. The results indicated that snow cover greatly influenced the hydrothermal dynamics of the active soil layer in alpine meadows. In the snow manipulation experiment with a snow depth greater than 15 cm, the snow cover postponed both the freeze-fall and thawrise onset times of soil temperature and moisture in alpine LC （lower vegetation coverage） meadows and of soil moisture in alpine HC （higher vegetation coverage） meadows; however, the opposite response occurred for soil temperatures of alpine HC meadows,where the entire melting period was extended by advancing the thaw-rise and delaying the freeze-fall onset time of the soil temperature. Snow cover resulted in a decreased amplitude and rate of variation in soil temperature, for both alpine HC meadows and alpine LC meadows, whereas the distinct influence of snow cover on the amplitude and rate of soil moisture variation occurred at different soil layers with different vegetation coverages. Snow cover increased the soil moisture of alpine grasslands during thawing periods. The results confirmed that the annual hydrothermal dynamics of active layers in permafrost were subject to the synergistic actions of both snow cover and vegetation coverage.     

PERMAFROST DEGENERATION IN THE EAST OF QINGHAI-XIZANG PLATEAU

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Thermal dynamics of the permafrost active layer under increased precipitation at the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Precipitation has a significant influence on the hydro-thermal state of the active layer in permafrost regions, which disturbs the surface energy balance, carbon flux, ecosystem, hydrological cycles and landscape processes. To better understand the hydro-thermal dynamics of active layer and the interactions between rainfall and permafrost, we applied the coupled heat and mass transfer model for soil-plant-atmosphere system into high-altitude permafrost regions in this study. Meteorological data, soil temperature, heat flux and moisture content from different depths within the active layer were used to calibrate and validate this model. Thereafter, the precipitation was increased to explore the effect of recent climatic wetting on the thermal state of the active layer. The primary results demonstrate that the variation of active layer thickness under the effect of short-term increased precipitation is not obvious, while soil surface heat flux can show the changing trends of thermal state in active layer, which should not be negligible. An increment in year-round precipitation leads to a cooling effect on active layers in the frozen season, i.e. verifying the insulating effect of "snow cover". However, in the thawed season, the increased precipitation created a heating effect on active layers, i.e. facilitating the degradation of permafrost. The soil thermal dynamic in single precipitation event reveals that the precipitation event seems to cool the active layer, while compared with the results under increased precipitation, climatic wetting trend has a different influence on the permafrost evolution.     

青海湖流域植被盖度时空变化研究

高寒区植被变化一直是气候和生态学领域关注的热点问题。本研究基于MODIS NDVI数据计算的植被覆盖度数据和高分辨率气象数据,分析了青海湖流域2001-2017年植被覆盖度分布格局及动态变化,探讨了其对气候变化、人类活动和冻土退化的响应。结果表明：① 近十几年青海湖流域植被覆盖度整体表现为增加趋势,不同植被类型增幅存在差异性,草地增幅最大,达到6.1%/10a,其它植被类型增幅在2%~3%/10a之间;② 流域局部地区仍存在植被退化现象,研究期植被退化面积表现为先增加后减小的变化趋势。2006-2011年重度退化区集中在青海湖东岸,2011-2017年重度退化区集中在流域的西北部,这些区域是青海湖流域荒漠分布区,植被覆盖度较低,是今后生态恢复需重点关注的区域;③ 气候变化是流域植被覆盖度变化的主导因素,气候变化对青海湖流域主要植被类型覆盖度变化的贡献率为84.21%,对草原、草甸和灌丛植被覆盖度变化的贡献率分别为81.84%、87.47%和75.96%;④ 人类活动对流域主要植被类型覆盖度变化的贡献率为15.79%,对草原、草甸和灌丛植被覆盖度变化的贡献率分别为18.16%、12.53%和24.04%,环青海湖地区人类活动对植被恢复有促进效应,在青海湖流域北部部分地区人类活动的破坏力度仍大于建设力度;⑤ 冻土退化对青海湖流域草甸和灌丛植被覆盖度变化影响很小,主要影响草原植被覆盖度变化,冻土退化造成草原植被覆盖度增长速率减小了1.2%/10a。     

三峡库区典型样带潜热通量遥感反演与验证

本文以三峡库区腹地的部分地区为典型样带,利用遥感数据的时效性和区域性优势,结合常规气象数据,定量反演样带地表潜热通量,并对比验证遥感反演方法的可行性和可靠性。结果表明：潜热通量在不同地表覆被状况下呈现较大差异,城镇居民区和无植被覆盖区一般在20~80W·m^-2;人工林场、山区森林及草灌和山前农作区在180~280W·m^-2;水体则分布在420~470W·m^-2,潜热通量整体呈现出随地表覆被变化而变化的空间异质性。此外,由于库区地表覆被类型多样,并受到山区起伏地形地貌的影响,潜热通量在空间分布上的地形分异特征也较显著。     

Role of permafrost in resilience of social-ecological system and its spatio-temporal dynamics in the source regions of Yangtze and Yellow Rivers

Permafrost is one of the key components of terrestrial ecosystem in cold regions. In the context of climate change, few studies have investigated resilience of social ecological system(SER) from the perspective of permafrost that restricts the hydrothermal condition of alpine grassland ecosystem. In this paper, based on the structural dynamics, we developed the numerical model for the SER in the permafrost regions of the source of Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, analyzed the spatial-temporal characteristics and sensitivity of the SER, and estimated the effect of permafrost change on the SER. The results indicate that: 1) the SER has an increasing trend, especially after 1997, which is the joint effect of precipitation, temperature, NPP and ecological conservation projects; 2) the SER shows the spatial feature of high in southeast and low in northwest,which is consistent with the variation trends of high southeast and low northwest for the precipitation, temperature and NPP, and low southeast and high northwest for the altitude; 3) the high sensitive regions of SER to the permafrost change have gradually transited from the island distribution to zonal and planar distribution since 1980, moreover, the sensitive degree has gradually reduced; relatively, the sensitivity has high value in the north and south, and low value in the south and east; 4) the thickness of permafrost active layer shows a highly negative correlation with the SER. The contribution rate of permafrost change to the SER is-4.3%, that is, once the thickness of permafrost active layer increases 1 unit, the SER would decrease 0.04 units.     

Thermal recovery process of a backfilled open-pit in permafrost area at the Gulian strip coal mine in Northeast China

Timely and proper backfilling of open-pits in strip coal-mines has been an effective measurement for the recovery of the hydrothermal regimes and ecological environment in permafrost regions. In this study, numerical simulations and statistical regressions were applied for analyzing the recovery processes of the backfill and its major influencing factors for the thermal equilibrium in recently backfilled open pits at the Gulian strip coalmine in Mo'he, Northeast China. Results show that the thermal recovery time of backfilled areas is positively correlated to the backfill depth(BD) of the soils, the backfilled soil temperature(BST), and the mean annual ground surface temperature(MAGST); meanwhile, climate warming can impact on thermal regimes of the backfill area. The impact of climate warming on ground temperature of the backfill will show up significantly in about 50 years afterbackfilling(BD at 10.0 and 20.0 m, BST at 20.0°C) under the climate warming scenario(CWS) of 0.025°C·year ~(-1). Grey-relation analyses show that the sensitivity of the backfill recovery time declines in the order of the BD, BST and MAGST. On the basis of the abovementioned studies, the layer-by-layer backfilling in cold seasons is advised for more effective and more rapid recovery of thermal regimes of the backfilled open-pits in cold regions.     

基于LTDR AVHRR和MODIS观测的全球长时间序列叶面积指数遥感反演

叶面积指数是描述土壤-植被-大气之间物质和能量交换的关键参数,获取大区域长时间序列叶面积指数有助于研究气候变化条件下植被的响应及反馈。本文利用MODIS观测和经过重新处理的地表长时间数据集（Land Long Term Data Record）LTDR AVHRR数据,生成了全球1981-2012年叶面积指数数据。算法通过建立二者之间像元级关系,利用高质量MODIS观测约束历史AVHRR数据的反演,这有助于减小2种存在显著差别传感器反演结果的不一致性,也有助于提高AVHRR反演质量。首先算法利用高质量MODIS地表反射率反演2000-2012年叶面积指数,然后利用多年每8 d的LTDR AVHRR地表反射率数据计算简单比植被指数（Simple Ratio,SR）,利用SR平均值和MODIS LAI平均值建立像元级AVHRR SR-MODIS LAI关系。在此基础上,实现1981-1999年AVHRR LAI反演,最终得到全球1981-2012年叶面积指数数据。本算法反演的AVHRR和MODIS LAI与全球植被的空间分布吻合,能表征主要生物群系类型的季节变化特征,2个数据集一致性较好,并且与NASA MODIS LAI标准产品（MOD15A2）的空间分布和季节变化曲线吻合较好。     

Rebirth after death: forest succession dynamics in response to climate change on Gongga Mountain,Southwest China

Global climate change is having long-term impacts on the geographic distribution of forest species. However, the response of vertical belts of mountain forests to climate change is still little known. The vertical distribution of forest vegetation(vertical vegetation belt) on Gongga Mountain in Southwest China has been monitored for 30 years. The forest alternation of the vertical vegetation belt under different climate conditions was simulated by using a mathematical model GFSM(the Gongga Forest Succession Model). Three possible Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) climate scenarios(increase of air temperature and precipitation by 1.8℃/5%, 2.8℃/10% and 3.4℃/15% for B_1, A_1B and A_2 scenarios, respectively) were chosen to reflect lower, medium and higher changes of global climate. The vertical belts of mountainous vegetation will shift upward by approximately 300 m, 500 m and 600 m in the B_1, A_1B and A_2 scenarios, respectively, according to the simulated results. Thus, the alpine tree-line will move to a higher altitude. The simulation also demonstrated that, in a changing climate, the shift in the vegetation community will be a slow and extended process characterized by two main phases. During the initial phase, trees of the forest community degrade or die, owing to an inability to adapt to a warmer climate. This results in modest environment for the introduction of opportunistic species, consequently, the vegetation with new dominant tree species becomes predominant in the space vacated by the dead trees at the expense of previously dominated original trees as the succession succeed and climate change advance. Hence, the global climate change would dramatically change forest communities and tree species in mountainous regions because that the new forest community can grow only through the death of the original tree. Results indicated that climate change will cause the change of distribution and composition of forest communities on Gongga Mountain, and this change may enhance as the intensity of climate change increases. As a result, the alternation of death and rebirth would finally result in intensive landscape changes, and may strongly affect the eco-environment of mountainous regions.     

海岸带海陆交互作用过程及其生态环境效应研究进展

海岸带是地球表层物质、能量和信息流通交换最活跃区域之一,具有动态变化的盐度、溶解氧等地球化学梯度,其界面过程体现在大气降水-河水-海水-地下水-沉积物之间的物质循环和能量交换。在人类活动与气候变化双重影响下,海岸带面临着气候灾害、海岸侵蚀、海水入侵、滨海湿地退化、水体富营养化以及重金属、新型污染物等生态环境问题,成为地球科学和环境科学领域研究的热点。本文围绕海岸带水文-生物地球化学循环、人类活动影响下的海岸带环境问题、海岸带环境对气候变化的响应、海岸带海陆交互界面观测新技术新方法4个方面,综述了国内外研究进展与发展趋势,展望了海陆交互作用及其生态环境效应研究的未来发展方向。      

泛北极多年冻土及重大线性工程稳定性状况

泛北极是中国“一带一路”倡议的主要合作示范区域,已有的重大线性工程及新的基础设施建设均面临着与多年冻土相关的冻融灾害及工程病害问题。在全球气候变暖及人类活动增强的背景下,泛北极多年冻土主要呈现地温升高、活动层厚度增加趋势,且低温多年冻土地温升高更加明显,20世纪70年代以来年平均地温(MAGT)升温最高可达3℃;自北向南多年冻土活动层厚度增加,且增厚趋势趋于明显,在俄蒙边境地区活动层厚度增速为3~5 cm·年-1。多年冻土退化诱发系列与热喀斯特过程相关的地质灾害,主要包括热喀斯特滑坡与热喀斯特湖,且灾害数量急剧增加,如加拿大Banks Island地区1984~2015年热喀斯特滑坡数量增加了约60倍。在多年冻土退化、热稳定性降低的背景下,泛北极铁路、公路和管道等重大线性工程出现了沉陷、裂缝等不同类型、不同程度的病害,整体上多年冻土区道路工程病害率大于30%。热融灾害及工程病害的发育均与气候及岩土、冻土条件相关,但工程病害还与工程运营期限、工程结构形式密切关联。对比泛北极道路、管道等线性工程状况及其与工程结构的关系,以及病害特征和防治措施效果,表明基于保护冻土的“主动冷却”设计原则依然是多年冻土区工程设计的主导思想。     

叶面积指数遥感反演研究进展与展望

叶面积指数表征叶片的疏密程度和冠层结构特征,体现植被光合、呼吸和蒸腾作用等生物物理过程的能力,是描述土壤-植被-大气之间物质和能量交换的关键参数。目前多种卫星传感器观测生成了多个区域和全球的叶面积指数标准产品。本文综述了基于光学遥感数据的叶面积指数反演进展:首先,介绍了叶面积指数的定义和在生态系统模拟中的作用;然后,阐述了基于光学遥感反演叶面积指数的基本原理;在此基础上,论述了基于植被指数经验关系和基于物理模型的两种主要遥感反演算法,讨论了2种算法的优点和存在的问题,并总结了现有的主要全球数据产品及其特点,论述了产品检验的方法和需要注意的问题;最后,总结了当前叶面积指数反演中存在的问题,并展望了其发展趋势和研究方向。     

Different Responses of Vegetation to Frozen Ground Degradation in the Source Region of the Yellow River from 1980 to 2018

Frozen ground degradation under a warming climate profoundly influences the growth of alpine vegetation in the source region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. This study investigated spatiotemporal variations in the frozen ground distribution, the active layer thickness(ALT) of permafrost(PF) soil and the soil freeze depth(SFD) in seasonally frozen soil from 1980 to 2018 using the temperature at the top of permafrost(TTOP) model and Stefan equation. We compared the effects of these variations on vegetation growth among different frozen ground types and vegetation types in the source region of the Yellow River(SRYR). The results showed that approximately half of the PF area(20.37% of the SRYR) was projected to degrade into seasonally frozen ground(SFG) during the past four decades; furthermore, the areal average ALT increased by 3.47 cm/yr, and the areal average SFD decreased by 0.93 cm/yr from 1980 to 2018. Accordingly, the growing season Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI) presented an increasing trend of 0.002/10 yr, and the increase rate and proportion of areas with NDVI increase were largest in the transition zone where PF degraded to SFG(the PF to SFG zone). A correlation analysis indicated that variations in ALT and SFD in the SRYR were significantly correlated with increases of NDVI in the growing season. However, a rapid decrease in SFD(-1.4 cm/10 yr) could have reduced the soil moisture and, thus, decreased the NDVI. The NDVI for most vegetation types exhibited a significant positive correlation with ALT and a negative correlation with SFD. However, the steppe NDVI exhibited a significant negative correlation with the SFD in the PF to SFG zone but a positive correlation in the SFG zone, which was mainly limited by water condition because of different change rates of the SFD.     

Changes in the depths of seasonal freezing and thawing and their effects on vegetation in the Three-River Headwater Region of the Tibetan Plateau

Frozen ground degradation plays an important role in vegetation growth and activity in high-altitude cold regions. This study estimated the spatiotemporal variations in the active layer thickness(ALT) of the permafrost region and the soil freeze depth(SFD) in the seasonally frozen ground region across the Three Rivers Source Region(TRSR) from 1980 to 2014 using the Stefan equation, and differentiated the effects of these variations on alpine vegetation in these two regions. The results showed that the average ALT from 1980 to 2014 increased by23.01 cm/10 a, while the average SFD decreased by 3.41 cm/10 a, and both changed intensively in the transitional zone between the seasonally frozen ground and permafrost. From 1982-2014, the increase in the normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI)and the advancement of the start of the vegetation growing season(SOS) in the seasonally frozen ground region(0.0078/10 a, 1.83 d/10 a) were greater than those in the permafrost region(0.0057/10 a,0.39 d/10 a). The results of the correlation analysis indicated that increases in the ALT and decreases in the SFD in the TRSR could lead to increases in the NDVI and advancement of the SOS. Surface soil moisture played a critical role in vegetation growth in association with the increasing ALT and decreasing SFD. The NDVI for all vegetation types in the TRSR except for alpine vegetation showed an increasing trend that was significantly related to the SFD and ALT. During the study period, the general frozen ground conditions were favorable to vegetation growth, while the average contributions of ALT and SFD to the interannual variation in the NDVI were greater than that of precipitation but less than that of temperature.     

Spatial variability and its main controlling factors of the permafrost soil-moisture on the northern-slope of Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The soil moisture movement is an important carrier of material cycle and energy flow among the various geo-spheres in the cold regions. Thus, this research takes the north slope of Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai-Tibet Plateau as a case study. The present study firstly investigates the change of permafrost moisture in different slope positions and depths. Based on this investigation, this article attempts to investigate the spatial variability of permafrost moisture and identifies the key influence factors in different terrain conditions. The method of classification and regression tree (CART) is adopted to identify the main controlling factors influencing the soil moisture movement. The relationships between soil moisture and environmental factors are revealed by the use of the method of canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). The results show that: 1) Due to the terrain slope and the freezing-thawing process, the horizontal flow weakens in the freezing period. The vertical migration of the soil moisture movement strengthens. It will lead to that the soil-moisture content in the up-slope is higher than that in the down-slope. The conclusion is contrary during the melting period. 2) Elevation, soil texture, soil temperature and vegetation coverage are the main environmental factors which affect the slope-permafrost soil-moisture. 3) Slope, elevation and vegetation coverage are the main factors that affect the slope-permafrost soil-moisture at the shallow depth of 0-20 cm. It is complex at the middle and lower depth.     

Response of biomass spatial pattern of alpine vegetation to climate change in permafrost region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China

Alpine ecosystems in permafrost region are extremely sensitive to climate changes.To determine spatial pattern variations in alpine meadow and alpine steppe biomass dynamics in the permafrost region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China,calibrated with historical datasets of above-ground biomass production within the permafrost region's two main ecosystems,an ecosystem-biomass model was developed by employing empirical spatialdistribution models of the study region's precipitation,air temperature and soil temperature.This model was then successfully used to simulate the spatio-temporal variations in annual alpine ecosystem biomass production under climate change.For a 0.44°C decade-1 rise in air temperature,the model predicted that the biomasses of alpine meadow and alpine steppe remained roughly the same if annual precipitation increased by 8 mm per decade-1,but the biomasses were decreased by 2.7% and 2.4%,respectively if precipitation was constant.For a 2.2°C decade-1 rise in air temperature coupled with a 12 mm decade-1 rise in precipitation,the model predicted that the biomass of alpine meadow was unchanged or slightly increased,while that of alpine steppe was increased by 5.2%.However,in the absence of any rise in precipitation,the model predicted 6.8% and 4.6% declines in alpine meadow and alpine steppe biomasses,respectively.The response of alpine steppe biomass to the rising air temperatures and precipitation was significantly lesser and greater,respectively than that of alpine meadow biomass.A better understanding of the difference in alpine ecosystem biomass production under climate change is greatly significant with respect to the influence of climate change on the carbon and water cycles in the permafrost regions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.     

Temperature monitoring from 2012 to 2019 in central part of Suntar-Khayat Ridge,Russia

In recent decades, research of the Alps, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, and Cordillera have made great progress in understanding the phenomenon of permafrost. For the most part, this has been made possible due to temperature monitoring. However, the permafrost parameters in an area of more than 2 million square km of the mountainous regions of northeast Asia, for the most part, remain a blank spot in the scientific community. Due to the lack and insufficiency of factual materials, in 2012 the P.I. Melnikov Permafrost Institute began to take temperature measurements in the upper part of the permafrost in the central part of the VerkhoyanKolyma uplands, namely the Suntar-Khayat ridge. The article describes the temperature characteristics of air, surface and rocks of the active layer in the range of heights from 850 to 1821 m, in various landscape and topographic elements. For the observation period from 2012 to 2019, we obtained information on temperatures in the soils of the active layer at depths of 1 m, 3 m, 4 m, and 5 m and also air and surface temperature parameters. The availability of data on automated monitoring of rock temperatures in the active layer and the upper horizons of the layer of annual heat rotations made it possible to substantiate the most typical conditions of the temperature conditions of the permafrost zone of the characterized region. The parameters of permafrost existence and development are in favorable conditions. This is shown in the analysis of temperature data of air, surface and active layer. Soil temperatures in the active layer of annual heat rotations are most clearly represented at a depth of 1 m. Currently, on the territory of the mountain regions of Eastern Siberia, there are no more such sites for monitoring the temperature regime of soils. Information on the permafrost parameters in the region will allow us to begin the process of creating new models or checking existing forecasts and the distribution of the temperature pattern. It will also make it possible to evaluate the response of sensitive and vulnerable frozen soils of mountain regions to climate change.     

Mapping the vegetation distribution of the permafrost zone on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

In this paper,an updated vegetation map of the permafrost zone in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau(QTP) was delineated.The vegetation map model was extracted from vegetation sampling with remote sensing(RS) datasets by decision tree method.The spatial resolution of the map is 1 km×1 km,and in it the alpine swamp meadow is firstly distinguished in the high-altitude areas.The results showed that the total vegetated area in the permafrost zone of the QTP is 1,201,751 km~2.In the vegetated region,50,260 km~2 is the areas of alpine swamp meadow,583,909 km~2 for alpine meadow,332,754 km~2 for alpine steppe,and 234,828 km~2 for alpine desert.This updated vegetation map in permafrost zone of QTP could provide more details about the distribution of alpine vegetation types for studying the vegetation mechanisms in the land surface processes of highaltitude areas.     

对Beer-Lambert定律间接测量森林LAI的误差低估分析

 叶面积指数(Leaf Area Index,LAI)是表征植被冠层结构的核心参数。在地面对LAI的间接测量是遥感反演算法验证和改进的重要手段,而目前基于Beer-Lambert定律的森林LAI地面间接测量方法存在着严重的低估问题。本文通过理论分析,指出Beer-Lambert定律在应用到森林叶面积指数测量时,LAI低估的根本原因来源于叶面积体密度、消光路径及叶倾角投影G函数在空间上的不均匀性,并定量评估了冠层非随机分布对LAI测量结果的影响,发现植被冠层的非随机分布会对LAI的测量带来20％~40%的误差。这一结论,对于Beer-Lambert定律的简单修正应用于森林LAI间接测量时仍存在着较大的局限性,尚未能根本上解决LAI的低估问题,故间接测量LAI的理论和方法需进一步深入研究。