青海南部高原冬半年气温、降水异常的时空分布及其与雪灾的关系

利用１９５９—１９９３年冬半年（１０月—次年３月）青南高原１５个台站的月平均降水量和月平均气温距平资料，采用时空综合的经验正交函数分析方法，对青南高原地区冬半年降水、气温异常的时空分布特征进行了诊断研究，得到了降水与气温异常的典型配置及其反映这些典型场的年际演变规律的时间系数，并在此基础上进一步分析了降水、气温异常的时变特征与青南高原不同区域出现较严重雪灾年份之间的关系。结果表明，青南高原地区发生较严重雪灾的年份与时间系数出现极大（小）值的年份存在较好的对应关系     

青海南部高原半年气温,降水异常的时空分布及其与雪灾的关系

利用１９５９－１９９３年冬半年（１０月一次年３月）南海高原１５个台站的月平均降水量和月平均气温距平资料，采用时空综合的经验正交函数分析方法，对青南高原地区冬半年降水，气温异常的时空分布特征进行了诊断研究，得到了降水与气温异常的典型配置及其反映这些典型场的年际演变规律的时间系数，并在此基础上进一步分析了降水、气温异常的时变特征与青南高原不同区域出现较严重雪灾年份之间的关系。结果表明，青南高原地区发生     

青南牧区连阴雪天气初步研究

对1980－1990年青南地区连续降雪天气过程的分析研究，从气候特点、大气环流特征、物理量场等方面探讨青南雪灾发生发展的规律性，对提高雪灾天气预报准确率，做好为牧区生产的气象服务有重要作用。     

利用MODIS资料对积雪的遥感监测

通过对遥感卫星资料中云和雪的光谱特征的分析，提出利用中分辨率成像光谱仪（MODIS）红外、可见光谱段数据进行云、雪检测和分离的方法；并提供监测实例来说明利用MODIS数据可进行积雪监测。     

基于ERA-Interim资料的青海省空中云水资源评估

利用ERA-interim再分析资料分析2009—2018年青海省云液水含量和云冰水含量时空分布特征。结果表明:青海省云液水含量和云冰水含量自西北向东南逐渐增多,玉树南部、果洛东南部和祁连山区为云水资源较为丰富的地区,夏秋季节云水资源最为丰富,可达60～70 g·m~(-2)。从云水资源的垂直分布来看,云液水含量和云冰水含量随海拔高度增高呈先增多后减少的变化趋势,云液水含量在海拔4～6 km高度较多,云冰水含量在海拔7～8 km高度较多,云冰水含量峰值所在高度高于云液水含量峰值所在高度。夏秋季节,青南高原云液水含量和云冰水含量垂直变化幅度大,柴达木盆地云液水含量和云冰水含量垂直变化幅度小。从年际变化趋势来看,2009—2018年青海省大部地区云液水含量、云冰水含量呈增多趋势,且秋季增多趋势最为显著。从月际变化看,云液水含量和云冰水含量9月最高,1月最低。柴达木盆地云液水含量和云冰水含量的月际差异最小,东部农业区云液水含量月际差异最大,青南高原云冰水含量月际差异最大。     

云状判定技巧

《地面气象观测规范》第4章详述了二十九类云的不同特征,观测员可以依据各种云不同的外形、结构、排列、色泽、高度等特征,分析判定云状。这是云状判定的基本方法。但在观测实践中,由于云常常变化复杂,或因雨、雪、雾、沙尘等天气影响时,云的部分特征不明显甚至目测不到,给云状判定带来难度。     

包头中部地区冬春季地形云的特征浅析

地形云是人工催化增雨(雪)的主要选择之一。通过2004—2005年冬春季的人工增雨(雪)作业和雷达回波资料的统计分析,发现在市区及周边地区由于受特殊地形地貌的影响,地形云的特征明显。针对地形云,实施的人工增雨(雪)作业效果显著。加强对地形云的研究,对提高包头市人工增雨(雪)作业水平,将起到重要的指导作用。     

利用MODIS资料对积雪的遥感监测

通过对遥感卫星资料中云和雪的光谱特征的分析,提出利用中分辨率成像光谱仪(M OD IS)红外、可见光谱段数据进行云、雪检测和分离的方法;并提供监测实例来说明利用M OD IS数据可进行积雪监测。     

人工增雪对冬麦冻害的影响

自１９７８年以来，在新疆北部沿天山一带对冬季层状云飞机播撒碘化银、干冰等冷云催化剂进行人工增雪作业，对１８个非播云年和１７个播云年的冬麦冻害做了对比，在播云期内冬小麦年平均冻害面积减少８０％以上。对３个主要因素（麦种改良、冬季气温升高和人工增雪）进行了分析，结果表明，人工播云是一个主要的因素。     

中国西部云和积雪的多通道特征和识别

由于云与雪具有类似的辐射特性——高反射率与低亮度温度,利用目前的业务气象卫星扫描辐射计资料,用客观方法识别单个像素所对应的是雪还是云仍是一个十分困难的问题。本文利用NOAA-9和NOAA-11日间所有5个通道的AVHRR资料,分析了中国的西部——青藏高原及戈壁、沙漠等地区云和地表雪的多通道辐射特征,并采用多阈值法,结合实例进行了云、雪及背景地表的识别分类试验。分析结果表明,AVHRR第3通道的测量值经过适当处理后对识别云和地表积雪是十分有意义的。     

The cloud processes of a simulated moderate snowfall event in North China

The understanding of the cloud processes of snowfall is essential to the artificial enhancement of snow and the numerical simulation of snowfall. The mesoscale model MM5 is used to simulate a moderate snowfall event in North China that occurred during 20–21 December 2002. Thirteen experiments are performed to test the sensitivity of the simulation to the cloud physics with different cumulus parameterization schemes and different options for the Goddard cloud microphysics parameterization schemes. It is shown that the cumulus parameterization scheme has little to do with the simulation result. The results also show that there are only four classes of water substances, namely the cloud water, cloud ice, snow, and vapor, in the simulation of the moderate snowfall event. The analysis of the cloud microphysics budgets in the explicit experiment shows that the condensation of supersaturated vapor, the depositional growth of cloud ice, the initiation of cloud ice, the accretion of cloud ice by snow, the accretion of cloud water by snow, the deposition growth of snow, and the Bergeron process of cloud ice are the dominant cloud microphysical processes in the simulation. The accretion of cloud water by snow and the deposition growth of the snow are equally important in the development of the snow.     

北京地区一次降雪系统大气水凝物输送特征及降雪微物理机制的数值模拟研究

北京冬季降雪云系存在丰富的可开发利用的云水资源。出于人工增雪研究和充分开发云水资源的需要,文中对北京2019年11月29日发生的年度首场降雪进行了观测,对其资料做了分析和中尺度数值模拟,研究了降雪过程的宏观特征、水凝物输送及降雪的微物理机制。结果表明:影响本次北京降雪的是稳定性层状冷云云系,水凝物主要从北京区域的西边界和南边界输送到区域内,而从东边界和北边界流出,具有西向和南向分量的湿气流是降雪云系水物质的输送通道。降雪云中的水凝物基本全为冰晶和雪,有少量的云水,整层云系都含有非常丰富的水汽并且贯穿整个降雪时段。在冰面过饱和环境中,水汽凝华（Prds）是雪的主要增长过程;其次是云冰增长成雪（Prci）和云冰聚合成雪（Prai）的过程。     

Numerical comparison study of cloud microphysical parameterization schemes for a moderate snowfall event in North China

Summary A moderate snowfall event in North China is simulated using the high-resolution mesoscale model MM5. A fourfold-nest experiment, with a minimum horizontal grid size of 2 km, is run. In order to study the cloud microphysics processes associated with the snowfall, two experiments were conducted in two inner domains, one using the Goddard scheme (Goddard experiment), and the other using the Reisner scheme (Reisner experiment). The analysis focused on the comparison of the cloud microphysics processes which occurred in the experiments. It is shown that there is no implicit precipitation of cumulus parameterization in the domain of grid scale 18 km. The snowfall distribution patterns in the experiments are slightly different, but the microphysical characteristics and processes may have considerable differences between the two experiments: (1) The water substances in the cloud have cloud water, cloud ice and snow, but no rainwater and graupel in the Goddard experiment. However, the water substances in the cloud have cloud ice, snow, and graupel, but no cloud water and rainwater in the Reisner experiment. (2) The cloud ice mixing ratios in the Goddard experiment are larger than those in the Reisner experiment. (3) In the Goddard experiment, the dominant cloud microphysical processes include the growth of cloud water by the condensation of supersaturated vapor, the depositional growth of cloud ice, the initiation of cloud ice, the accretion of cloud ice by snow, the accretion of cloud water by snow, the deposition growth of snow and the Bergeron process of cloud ice. In the Reisner experiment, the dominant cloud microphysical processes include the depositional growth of cloud ice, the conversion of cloud ice to snow, the deposition of snow, and the deposition growth of graupel. (4) There is only snowfall in the Goddard experiment. Meanwhile, there is ice fall, snow fall, and graupel in the Reisner experiment. But the ice fall and graupel in the Reisner experiment is very slight and can be ignored.     

东北冷涡中尺度云系降水机制研究 II: 数值模拟

在利用卫星、雷达和机载PMS(粒子测量系统)等观测资料对2003年7月8日东北冷涡积层混合云系的降水形成机制分析的基础上,将观测分析与数值模拟研究相结合,用中尺度数值模式对积层混合云系做数值模拟,并结合观测资料进一步分析了积层混合云系的微物理结构、粒子形成过程和降水形成机制,获得如下结果:(1)混合云中对流云具有分层的微物理结构.冰晶含水量最大值出现的高度最高,其次由高到低的排序是雪、云水、霰和雨;雨水主要出现在云的暖区;各种粒子中以雨水含水量最高,其次是霰.对流云体生命期较长,微物理结构基本稳定.(2)粒子形成增长过程有差异.冰晶通过凝华过程增长.雪主要来源于冰晶,产生后主要通过撞冻、收集冰晶和凝华过程增长,其中撞冻过冷云水增长对雪质量贡献最大,其产生率极大值高度与过冷云水相当.丰富的过冷云水,给雪的撞冻增长提供了有利条件.在高、中和低层雪的形成有着不同的机制,高层雪收集冰晶长大后,下落到低层又以雪撞冻过冷云水的结淞增长为主要过程.霰主要由雨滴冻结和雪的转化产生,过冷雨滴与冰晶接触冻结成霰;过冷雨滴收集雪,雪随着雨滴的冻结而转化成霰.因此霰的产生与过冷雨滴关系极大.霰主要撞冻云水、收集雪和冰晶增长,其中撞冻是霰的重要增长过程.雨水主要由霰的融化形成,降水主要是由冷云过程产生的.在过冷层,霰撞冻增长占优势.云上部的冰晶和雪对云的中部具有播撒作用,过冷层中存在丰富的过冷水,对冰相粒子的撞冻增长有利.对云水消耗的分析表明,雨滴对云滴的收集、霰和雪对云水的撞冻增长是消耗云水的主要过程.(3)从各种粒子的形成和增长过程可以看出,大部分雨水由霰融化形成,暖云过程贡献要小得多.可见,降水主要是由冷云过程产生的,这与观测分析的结果一致.     

混合像元分解法提取积雪盖度

通过对积雪、地物和云进行光谱分析，指出积雪在传统的NOAA-AVHRR可见光和近红外通道的高反射性特点和新增的1.6 μm红外通道上的低反射性特点为提取积雪盖度提供了大量的光谱信息。首先对AVHRR数据进行主成分分析，提取含99%信息量的前两个主分量，对其进行散点图分析，获取终元。最后使用两种策略进行多光谱混合像元分解，提取积雪盖度参数，结果很相似，说明混合像元分解是提取积雪盖度参数的有效方法。     

北方冬季火箭增雪效果的探讨

利用播云温度窗和层状冷云概念模型,结合冬季系统云系降水特点,对冬季播云可行性进行了分析,提出了冬季火箭增雪策略,并指出了我国中高纬度北方深冬或高海拔地区冬季,总体缺乏作业条件,靠播"核"的人工增雪作业很难收到效果;中高纬度北方初冬和冬末季节或冬季温度常年在0℃左右中低纬度地区,可以采用短射程火箭开展人工增雪作业。     

Convection and cloud formation over snow-covered surface

This paper discusses the vapor-driven convection over snow and its limitations. It is shown on the basis of the moist convective plume model that vapor flux from the evaporating snow surface can drive convection, and maintain a super-cooled water cloud layer, without the assistance of heat flux from the surface, or entrainment or radiative cooling, at cloud top.Since the saturation vapor pressure over water is higher than that over ice, the base of the super-cooled water cloud has a lower limiting height. When the cloud base is lowered to this height, the air at the bottom of the convective layer is just saturated with respect to ice and the evaporation of snow stops, as does the vapor-driven convection. This limiting cloud base height varies with snow-surface temperature. The lower the snow temperature, the higher the cloud base height limit for continued convective transfer from the surface.     

The chemical fractionation of atmospheric aerosol as a result of snow crystal formation and growth

The relationships between the physical and chemical properties of mixed-phase clouds were investigated at Storm Peak Laboratory (3220m MSL) located near the continental divide in northwestern Colorado. Interstitial aerosol particles, cloud droplets and snow crystals were concurrently collected when the laboratory was enveloped by a precipitating cloud. All samples were analyzed for trace elements, soluble anions, electrical conductivity and acidity.The results show average trace constituent concentration ratios of cloud water to snow water range from 0.4 to 26. All but six of the 32 elements and ions measured had ratios greater than one. This result suggests a chemical species dependency of in-cloud aerosol particle scavenging processes. Evidence of a decrease of in-cloud aerosol particle scavenging efficiency by snow due to increases in aerosol concentration is also presented.Differences between the chemical composition of cloud water and snow water are manifested most strongly when snow crystals grow by vapor deposition. In-cloud scavenging efficiencies by snow crystals for most aerosol particle chemical species are dependent on the growth of the snow crystals by accretion of cloud droplets. This chemical fractionation of the atmospheric aerosol by snow crystal formation and growth should be most active where narrow, continental cloud droplet size distributions and low liquid water contents are prevalent, enhancing the probability of snow crystal growth by diffusion.     

A study of the microphysical processes in a numerically simulated heavy snowfall event in North China: the sensitivity of different snow intercept parameters

We performed a modeling study of the cloud processes in a heavy snowfall event occurring in North China on 20–22 December 2004. The nonhydrostatic Mesoscale Model (MM5) was used to carry out experiments with the Reisner-2 explicit microphysical parameterizations in four nested domains to test the sensitivity of simulated heavy snowfall to different snow intercept parameters. Results show that while the different intercept parameters do not significantly affect the accumulated snowfall amounts at the surface in either total amount or location, some microphysical characteristics of the modeled heavy snowfall event are impacted. The budget of cloud microphysics is analyzed to determine the dominant cloud processes. In the control experiment (CTL) with the snow intercept (N _os) specified as a function of temperature, the primary simulated hydrometeor is snow, and its mixing ratio is an order of magnitude larger than that of the other cloud species. Relative to CTL, the experiment with a fixed intercept (CON3E6) produced lower snow mixing ratios, more cloud water and graupel mixing ratios. Among the two experiments, while snowfall is slightly smaller in CON3E6, other processes like the rate of graupel fall, condensation and evaporation of cloud water, deposition and sublimation of graupel are all larger in CON3E6 than in CTL. Among CTL, CON3E6, and two more experiments (CON2E7: with a smaller fixed intercept; and NOSQS: N _os a function of snow mass mixing ratio), the budget shows that CON3E6 produces the smallest deposition and sublimation of snow, the largest deposition of cloud ice, and the largest conversion from cloud ice to snow.     

毫米波测云雷达在降雪观测中的应用初步分析

本文利用毫米波云雷达联合称重式雨量计、气球探空和S波段天气雷达在北京对2015年11月三次降雪进行了观测,以2015年11月22~23日降雪过程为例,主要从降雪系统的宏观结构特征、微物理变化以及毫米波雷达在降雪探测中电磁波衰减情况、雪粒子含水量和地面降雪量估测几方面进行初步分析。结果表明:（1）毫米波云雷达具有高时空分辨率,能对降雪系统进行精细化探测,在降雪系统发展最旺盛的阶段能够通过反射率（Z）、退极化比（LDR）和径向速度（V）初步判断出云中是否含有过冷液滴;（2）降雪回波强度最大值能反映整层云系中含水量最大的区域,当最大值Z大于20 dBZ时,最大值的大小、最大值持续时间、最大值出现的高度与地面降水量成正相关,速度最大值表示云中粒子上升最大速度（速度为正时）或者粒子下落的最小速度（速度为负时）,主要分布在－0.5~2 m s?1,速度最小值表示粒子下落的最大速度,主要在－3~－1 m s?1;（3）随着高度增加反射率的垂直廓线会出现多个峰值,这是由于不同高度层风速分布不均造成的,降雪回波这种特点比降雨回波更明显;（4）对比Ka与S波段雷达反射率可知,两雷达反射率平均差值小于2.5 dBZ,Ka波段反射率略大S波段雷达反射率;（5）降雪量反演与地面降雪量仪数据对比,逐小时降雪量反演精度为20.38%,累计降雪量反演误差为6.58%,24小时累计降雪量绝对误差为1.9 mm,说明云雷达估算累计降雪量具有较高的可行性,能够很准确的反映地面实际降雪情况,当降雪系统发展旺盛时,雪粒子含水量分布在0.05~0.15 g m?3,在降雪初期或者降雪系统消散期,雪粒子含水量一般小于0.04 g m?3,能够很好地反映出整层降雪回波的雪粒子含水量。这些云雷达在降雪观测中的应用和初步分析结果可以更好的地了解降雪系统宏微观结构,为云模式的发展和人工影响天气中增雪潜力评估提供一些参考。