A model of dissolved organic carbon concentrations in soil and stream waters

The release of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) into drainage waters was modelled using the hydrology of the Birkenes model of stream water chemistry and estimated parameters for the formation and decay of soluble organic matter in the soil. The model was first tested against soil water DOC concentrations over a three year period in the Loch Dee catchment in southwest Scotland. It predicted annual cycles in DOC at one site, but underestimated maximum DOC in the first year, overestimated in the following year, and predicted values very similar to the measured values in the third year. With small modifications to the parameters controlling organic matter addition and decay it successfully predicted DOC variations at two other soil water sites with smaller mean DOC. Further tests were made against short-term DOC variations in a stream draining a subcatchment of Loch Ard in west-central Scotland, using the same decay and addition parameters. Prediction of temporal variation was good, although predicted concentrations were about 25 per cent less than measured values. Considerable potential for the use of fully optimized models of DOC production in soil and stream waters is identified on the basis of these results.     

Prediction of future short-term stream chemistry — a modelling approach

The problem of predicting future short-term chemical behaviour in acidic and acid-sensitive streams is addressed. A relatively simple method is presented which combines a chemical technique for splitting the hydrograph into ground water and soil water components, based on the conservative component acid neutralization capacity, with the long-term hydrochemical model (MAGIC) in a ‘two-box’ mode. This method, coupled with a chemical speciation program (ALCHEMI), is used to assess short-term variations in stream chemistry with change in atmospheric deposition chemistry. The method is applied for a semi-natural moorland catchment in mid-Wales (Afon Gwy). For both hydrogen ion and inorganic aluminium, the modelled stream mixing relationships are non-linear, particularly at low hydrogen ion concentrations. The results also show that the relationship between hydrogen ion and inorganic aluminium concentrations varies with time in the stream. This result has important implications as it implies that aluminium concentrations will not recover, with reduced anthropogenic sulphur deposition, as rapidly as has previously been thought. Two methods, for use with critical load evaluation of ecological stress, are presented for describing the changes occurring: the hydrogen ion and inorganic aluminium concentration duration curve; the hydrogen ion and inorganic aluminium incident frequenty diagram.     

A two‐dimensional model of hydraulic performance of stormwater infiltration systems

Stormwater infiltration systems are a popular method for urban stormwater control. They are often designed using an assumption of one‐dimensional saturated outflow, although this is not very accurate for many typical designs where two‐dimensional (2D) flows into unsaturated soils occur. Available 2D variably saturated flow models are not commonly used for design because of their complexity and difficulties with the required boundary conditions. A purpose‐built stormwater infiltration system model was thus developed for the simulation of 2D flow from a porous storage. The model combines a soil moisture–based model for unsaturated soils with a ponded storage model and uses a wetting front‐tracking approach for saturated flows. The model represents the main physical processes while minimizing input data requirements. The model was calibrated and validated using data from laboratory 2D stormwater infiltration trench experiments. Calibrations were undertaken using five different combinations of calibration data to examine calibration data requirements. It was found that storage water levels could be satisfactorily predicted using parameters calibrated with either data from laboratory soils tests or observed water level data, whereas the prediction of soil moistures was improved through the addition of observed soil moisture data to the calibration data set. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation of model complexity and space–time resolution on the prediction of long‐term soil salinity dynamics,western San Joaquin Valley,California

The numerical simulation of long‐term large‐scale (field to regional) variably saturated subsurface flow and transport remains a computational challenge, even with today's computing power. Therefore, it is appropriate to develop and use simplified models that focus on the main processes operating at the pertinent time and space scales, as long as the error introduced by the simpler model is small relative to the uncertainties associated with the spatial and temporal variation of boundary conditions and parameter values. This study investigates the effects of various model simplifications on the prediction of long‐term soil salinity and salt transport in irrigated soils. Average root‐zone salinity and cumulative annual drainage salt load were predicted for a 10‐year period using a one‐dimensional numerical flow and transport model (i.e. UNSATCHEM) that accounts for solute advection, dispersion and diffusion, and complex salt chemistry. The model uses daily values for rainfall, irrigation, and potential evapotranspiration rates. Model simulations consist of benchmark scenarios for different hypothetical cases that include shallow and deep water tables, different leaching fractions and soil gypsum content, and shallow groundwater salinity, with and without soil chemical reactions. These hypothetical benchmark simulations are compared with the results of various model simplifications that considered (i) annual average boundary conditions, (ii) coarser spatial discretization, and (iii) reducing the complexity of the salt‐soil reaction system. Based on the 10‐year simulation results, we conclude that salt transport modelling does not require daily boundary conditions, a fine spatial resolution, or complex salt chemistry. Instead, if the focus is on long‐term salinity, then a simplified modelling approach can be used, using annually averaged boundary conditions, a coarse spatial discretization, and inclusion of soil chemistry that only accounts for cation exchange and gypsum dissolution–precipitation. We also demonstrate that prediction errors due to these model simplifications may be small, when compared with effects of parameter uncertainty on model predictions. The proposed model simplifications lead to larger time steps and reduced computer simulation times by a factor of 1000. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Chemical Fate of Injected Wastes

The chemical fate of wastes put into disposal wells can be determined using standard chemical engineering techniques. The concentration of hazardous constituents is typically reduced by reactions within the waste itself or by reactions with the injection zone material, thus reducing any potential impact on the environment. Such reactions include neutralization, hydrolysis, ion exchange, adsorption, precipitation, co-precipitation and microbial degradation.
Extensive research was done to quantify these phenomena, so they could be used in a predictive model.
Neutralization, hydrolysis and precipitation were modeled using data from the open literature: reaction rates and equilibrium constants for the dominant reactions were incorporated into a sophisticated computer simulation that calculates solid-liquid equilibria of aqueous electrolyte solutions.
The model predicted the fate of two waste streams: (1) high-pH, cyanide-containing waste injected into sandstone is made less hazardous by hydrolysis and sand dissolution, and (2) FeCl₃-FeCl₂ HCl-H₂ O waste is made non-hazardous by reaction with dolomite. Experiments are planned to confirm certain model predictions. Further development and public access of the model are planned.     

Assessment of soil factors controlling ephemeral gully erosion on agricultural fields

The soil factor is crucial in controlling and properly modeling the initiation and development of ephemeral gullies (EGs). Usually, EG initiation has been related to various soil properties (i.e. sealing, critical shear stress, moisture, texture, etc.); meanwhile, the total growth of each EG (erosion rate) has been linked with proper soil erodibility. But, despite the studies to determine the influence of soil erodibility on (ephemeral) gully erosion, a universal approach is still lacking. This is due to the complex relationship and interactions between soil properties and the erosive process. A feasible soil characterization of EG erosion prediction on a large scale should be based on simple, quick and inexpensive tests to perform. The objective of this study was to identify and assess the soil properties – easily and quickly to determine – which best reflect soil erodibility on EG erosion. Forty‐nine different physical–chemical soil properties that may participate in establishing soil erodibility were determined on agricultural soils affected by the formation of EGs in Spain and Italy. Experiments were conducted in the laboratory and in the field (in the vicinity of the erosion paths). Because of its importance in controlling EG erosion, five variables related to antecedent moisture prior to the event that generated the gullies and two properties related to landscape topography were obtained for each situation. The most relevant variables were detected using multivariate analysis. The results defined 13 key variables: water content before the initiation of EGs, organic matter content, cation exchange capacity, relative sealing index, two granulometric and organic matter indices, seal permeability, aggregates stability (three index), crust penetration resistance, shear strength and an erodibility index obtained from the Jet Test erosion apparatus. The latter is proposed as a useful technique to evaluate and predict soil loss caused by EG erosion. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The erodibility of upland soils and the design of preafforestation drainage networks in the United Kingdom

Hydraulic thresholds for erosion of fourteen upland mineral and organic soils were determined in a hydraulic flume. These soils are from areas to be afforested in the United Kingdom. Some of the group are erosion resistant but others are susceptible to erosion once denuded of vegetation; for example, by preafforestation ploughing. These threshold data were required to calibrate a hydraulic model for effective design of preafforestation drainage networks on a variety of soils. However, simple field measures of soil properties indicative of erosion potential would be of value to the forestry industry for management purposes. Consequently, hydraulic threshold data were related by linear regression methods to basic soil properties, including organic content, grain size, bulk density, compression strength and penetration resistance. The investigation concluded that four peat soils are not eroded by clear water velocities up to 5·7 m s⁻¹, although a mineral bedload might induce erosion at lesser current speeds. Penetration resistance is a good field indicator of the degree of humification of the peat soils. Although selected physical parameters contribute resistance to water erosion, an increased organic content is pre-eminent in reducing erosion susceptibility in both organic and mineral soils. Although compressive strength was not indicative of soil erodibility, field measurements of penetration resistance on a variety of soils could be related to hydraulic thresholds of erosion; albeit through the construction of discriminant functions interpolated by eye. Consequently, organic content (laboratory) or penetration resistance (field) might form the basis of classifying upland soils in terms of erodibility. Mineral soils differ widely in terms of their erodibility, so that subject to further consideration, the use of ploughing for forestry cultivation might be appropriate in wider circumstances than presently recommended by the Forests and Water Guidelines. Ploughing should be acceptable on deep peat providing the underlying mineral soil is not exposed in the bottom of the furrow, and furrows are not led from mineral soils on to deep peat. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Case Study of Soil-Gas Sampling in Silt and Clay-Rich (Low-Permeability) Soils

Soil-gas sampling and analysis is a common tool used in vapor intrusion assessments; however, sample collection becomes more difficult in fine-grained, low-permeability soils because of limitations on the flow rate that can be sustained during purging and sampling. This affects the time required to extract sufficient volume to satisfy purging and sampling requirements. The soil-gas probe tubing or pipe and sandpack around the probe screen should generally be purged prior to sampling. After purging, additional soil gas must be extracted for chemical analysis, which may include field screening, laboratory analysis, occasional duplicate samples, or analysis for more than one analytical method (e.g., volatile organic compounds and semivolatile organic compounds). At present, most regulatory guidance documents do not distinguish between soil-gas sampling methods that are appropriate for high- or low-permeability soils. This paper discusses permeability influences on soil-gas sample collection and reports data from a case study involving soil-gas sampling from silt and clay-rich soils with moderate to extremely low gas permeability to identify a sampling approach that yields reproducible samples with data quality appropriate for vapor intrusion investigations for a wide range of gas-permeability conditions.     

The use of small flumes for the determination of soil erodibility

The objective of this study was to examine the possibility of determining soil erodibility of loamy soils with small flumes. This was done by comparing the classification of soil erodibility obtained in the field with that obtained in the laboratory. Therefore twenty soils with a texture varying from silty loam to sandy loam were selected from the Leuven region. The erosion in the field was determined by measuring the volumetric evolution of the rill pattern. In the laboratory the soils were tested with a rainfall simulator and small flumes. The conclusion was that for loamy soils the flume experiments are a quick, simple, and reliable method for the determination of the relative soil erodibility.     

Experimental stream acidification — the influence of sediment and streambed vegetation

An acidification experiment was conducted on a small stream in the Loch Ard area of central Scotland. The stream was chosen because of its large, flow related, variation in pH (5.9-4.0). Two acid additions were made to approximately pH 3.5–3.7. The results indicated a strong correlation between labile aluminium and hydrogen, and a noticeable hysteresis in the response of calcium and hydrogen. It is hypothesised that divalent cation response is a result of ion-exchange mechanisms involving the streambed vegetation, with aluminium release resulting primarily from exchange reactions with streambed sediment stores. Data from a program of stream spot sampling have been analysed in an attempt to elucidate the contribution of different sources of aluminium under different flow conditions. Streambed sources of aluminium contribute significantly under low flow conditions; however, at high flow, additional sources of aluminium must contribute to match observed streamwater chemistry.     

Geomorphic controls on floodplain sediment and soil organic carbon storage in a Scottish mountain river

River floodplains constitute an important element in the terrestrial sediment and organic carbon cycle and store variable amounts of carbon and sediment depending on a complex interplay of internal and external driving forces. Quantifying the storage in floodplains is crucial to understand their role in the sediment and carbon cascades. Unfortunately, quantitative data on floodplain storage are limited, especially at larger spatial scales. Rivers in the Scottish Highlands can provide a special case to study alluvial sediment and carbon dynamics because of the dominance of peatlands throughout the landscape, but the alluvial history of the region remains poorly understood. In this study, the floodplain sediment and soil organic carbon storage is quantified for the mountainous headwaters of the River Dee in eastern Scotland (663 km²), based on a coring dataset of 78 floodplain cross-sections. Whereas the mineral sediment storage is dominated by wandering gravel-bed river sections, most of the soil organic carbon storage can be found in anastomosing and meandering sections. The total storage for the Upper Dee catchment can be estimated at 5.2 Mt or 2306.5 Mg ha^-1 of mineral sediment and 0.7 Mt or 323.3 Mg C ha^-1 of soil organic carbon, which is in line with other studies on temperate river systems. Statistical analysis indicates that the storage is mostly related to the floodplain slope and the geomorphic floodplain type, which incorporates the characteristic stream power, channel morphology and the deposit type. Mapping of the geomorphic floodplain type using a simple classification scheme shows to be a powerful tool in studying the total storage and local variability of mineral sediment and soil organic carbon in floodplains. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soil moisture and texture controls of selected parameters of needle ice growth

Needle ice was grown in the laboratory to determine the limits of soil moisture and texture on the growth of needle ice. As the percentage of fines in the soil increases the lower limit of soil moisture required for growth decreases and may be defined by a linear boundary. The efficiency of conversion of soil water to needle ice in soil samples used, peaked at about 16 per cent soil fines. Contrary to expectations the finer textured soils produced significantly thicker ice crystals. Quantity of soil lifted by needle ice was related to ice height, the ice mass to atmospheric void ratio, soil texture and moisture and soil surface roughness. However, no definite, quantitative relationships could be determined. A test to determine if needle ice is selective in the grain sizes of particles lifted suggested no selectivity.     

The significance of surface complexation reactions in hydrologic systems: a geochemist's perspective

Complexation reactions at the mineral–water interface affect the transport and transformation of metals and organic contaminants, nutrient availability in soils, formation of ore deposits, acidification of watersheds and the global cycling of elements. Such reactions can be understood by quantifying speciation reactions in homogeneous aqueous solutions, characterizing reactive sites at mineral surfaces and developing models of the interactions between aqueous species at solid surfaces. In this paper, the application of thermodynamic principles to quantify aqueous complexation reactions is described. This is followed by a brief overview of a few of the methods that have been used to characterize reactive sites on mineral surfaces. Next, the application of empirical and semi-empirical models of adsorption at the mineral–water interface, including distribution coefficients, simple ion exchange models, and Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms is discussed. Emphasis is placed on the limitations of such models in providing an adequate representation of adsorption in hydrological systems. These limitations arise because isotherms do not account for the structure of adsorbed species, nor do they account for the development of surface charge with adsorption. This is contrasted with more sophisticated models of adsorption, termed ‘surface complexation models’, which include the constant capacitance model, the diffuse layer model, the triple layer model and the MUSIC model. In these models, speciation reactions between surface functional groups and dissolved species control the variable surface charge build-up and the specific adsorption properties of minerals in aqueous solutions. Next, the influence of mineral surface speciation on the reactivity of adsorbed species and on far from equilibrium dissolution rates of minerals is discussed. Finally, the applicability of microscopic models of surface complexation to field-scale systems is explored and the need to integrate sophisticated surface chemical and hydrological modeling approaches is stressed.     

A modified subsurface stormflow model of hillsides in forest catchment

Subsurface flow plays an important role in forest catchment hydrological processes, for which a modified model is established in this paper. Firstly, by taking soil samples from Natural Preserve Forests of Changbai Mountain, two crucial parameters for subsurface flow, the saturated hydraulic conductivity and effective porosity, were measured in the laboratory. Secondly, submodels of the two parameters varying logarithmically with soil depth were established through regressive analysis. Then a modified subsurface stormflow model (Modified model) was founded by substituting the submodels into a storage–discharge model (Sloan's model), established by Sloan in 1983. Finally, to verify the Modified model, five rainfall events on a simulated hillside were carried out. The subsurface flow processes were simulated using the Modified model, Sloan's model and Robinson's model. The comparison of simulated subsurface stormflow processes using the three models respectively with measured ones showed that the Modified model obtained better accuracy for peak flow and total amount of subsurface stormflow than the other two models. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

抚仙湖流域不同农业模式砾质土壤环境质量及其氮磷流失风险评估

于2006年8月分层采集抚仙湖流域有机及传统农业农田砾质土壤,对土壤样品的机械组成、重金属含量、养分剖面积累进行测定分析;通过室内降雨模拟,对不同土壤样品氮磷流失风险进行评估.结果表明:①有机及传统农业模式下,砾质土壤机械组成发生明显变化,0-20cm土层砂粒含量明显降低:②除传统农业土壤Cd为二级标准,其他土壤重金属含量均符合国家土壤环境质量(GB/15618-1995)一级标准:③有机及传统农业模式下0-20cm土层有机质、全氮养分明显积累,但不同农业模式问无明显差异:有机农业土壤全磷、水溶性氮磷积累程度显著高于传统农业土壤;④有机农业土壤在780mm模拟降雨条件下,氮、磷流失风险更大,氮、磷流失总量分别是传统农业土壤的1.9倍、19.8倍.     

Characteristics and distributions of humic acids in two soil profiles of the southwest China Karst area

Characteristics and distributions of humic acid(HA) and soil organic matter(SOM) in a yellow soil profile and a limestone soil profile of the southwest China Karst area were systematically investigated to reveal their evolutions in different soils of the study area. The results showed that characteristics and distribution of SOM along the two soil profiles were notably different. Total organic carbon(TOC) contents of soil samples decreased just slightly along the limestone soil profile but sharply along the yellow soil profile. TOCs of the limestone soils were significantly higher than those of the corresponding yellow soils, and C/N ratios of SOMs showed a similar variation trend to that of TOCs, indicating that SOM can be better conserved in the limestone soil than in the yellow soil. The soil humic acids were exhaustively extracted and further fractionated according to their apparent molecular weights using ultrafiltration techniques to explore underlying conservation mechanisms. The result showed that C/N ratios of HAs from different limestone soil layers were relatively stable and that large molecular HA fractions predominated the bulk HA of the top soil, indicating that HA in the limestone profile was protected while bio and chemical degradations were retarded. Combined with organic elements contents and mineral contents of two soils, weconcluded that high calcium contents in limestone soils may play a key role in SOM conservation by forming complexation compounds with HAs or/and enclosing SOMs with hypergene CaCO_3 precipitation.     

An acidification model (MAGIC) with organic acids evaluated using whole-catchment manipulations in Norway

The results from two whole-catchment manipulation experiments in Norway are used to evaluate MAGIC (Model of Acidification of Groundwater In Catchments), a model of ecosystem biogeochemical response to acid deposition. MAGIC is an aggregated catchment-scale model of acidification that has been widely used in assessment activities in Europe and North America. The experiments involved artificial decrease (Reversing Acidification In Norway, RAIN) and increases (Humid Lake Acidification Experiment, HUMEX) in acidic deposition. Runoff from both sites is influenced by moderate levels of organic acids. At each site the model was calibrated to the control catchment and then applied to the manipulated catchments with only minor adjustments. The major responses in runoff chemistry to the manipulations were closely simulated by the model. Differences between simulated and observed volume-weighted annual average concentrations of all major ions were less than ±6 μequiv 1⁻¹ for the entire 4–8 year period of prediction. Trends in response to the manipulations were correctly simulated. Most of the residual error resulted from an inability of the model to reproduce the year-to-year variability (noise) around the trends. Although such model evaluations cannot ‘prove’ the correctness of the model structure, good fits to experimental data increase confidence in model applications for assessment and management purposes. Evaluations of this sort can also identify aspects of the model that need further development. For MAGIC, these are primarily a need for improvement in the calibration of aluminium solubility and a better process basis for nitrogen dynamics.     

Effect of soil properties on erosion by wash and splash

This paper describes laboratory testing of 148 samples collected from Southern Alberta for erosion by wash and splash. Rainfall intensity was held constant during these tests. Soil aggregation was the most significant variable explaining soil loss. The significance of other soil properties, such as organic carbon and clay content is variable, depending on the interrelationships among aggregate stability, organic content, and clay content of particular soils. Variations in erodibility of the major soils examined are explained by the resistance of aggregates to compaction and dispersion. Splash detachment and wash transport are the dominant erosion mechanisms in inter-rill areas.     

Evaluation of an interrill soil erosion model using laboratory catchment data

Physically based soil erosion simulation models require input parameters of soil detachment and sediment transport owing to the action and interactions of both raindrops and overland flow. A simple interrill soil water transport model is applied to a laboratory catchment to investigate the application of raindrop detachment and transport in interrill areas explicitly. A controlled laboratory rainfall simulation study with slope length simulation by flow addition was used to assess the raindrop detachment and transport of detached soil by overland flow in interrill areas. Artificial rainfall of moderate to high intensity was used to simulate intense rain storms. However, experiments were restricted to conditions where rilling and channelling did not occur and where overland flow covered most of the surface. A simple equation with a rainfall intensity term for raindrop detachment, and a simple sediment transport equation with unit discharge and a slope term were found to be applicable to the situation where clear water is added at the upper end of a small plot to simulate increased slope length. The proposed generic relationships can be used to predict raindrop detachment and the sediment transport capacity of interrill flow and can therefore contribute to the development of physically‐based erosion models. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An equivalent linear algorithm with frequency- and pressure-dependent moduli and damping for the seismic analysis of deep sites

The seismic analysis of soil deposits is most often carried out with an iterative computational scheme, proposed by Seed and Idriss, in which inelastic effects are only approximately modeled through soil degradation curves. Laboratory experimental data indicate that for highly confined materials, the standardized reduction curves commonly used overestimate the capacity of soils to dissipate energy. This paper first presents the results obtained with a simple four-parameter constitutive soil model, which when used to simulate cyclic loading, produces results that agree well with available laboratory experiments for soils under arbitrarily large confining pressures. Thereafter, a frequency- and pressure-dependent iterative algorithm for seismic amplification is proposed, which provides time histories that match well the results obtained with a true non-linear model. Finally, the modified linear iterative analysis is successfully used for the seismic analysis of a 1 km deep model for the Mississippi embayment near Memphis, Tennessee, and a class-A prediction of the seismic amplification in Treasure Island during the Loma Prieta earthquake.