Wind-Speed Undulations Over Swell: Field Experiment and Interpretation

Results of field measurements of the swell-induced undulation of the wind speed taken from a Black Sea platform are presented. The wind speed and its fluctuations were measured at several heights between 1.3 and 21 m above the mean sea level under various wind and swell conditions. Parameters of the swell-induced undulations were derived from cross spectra of the wind-speed fluctuations and the sea-surface displacement. As found, the phase and the amplitude of the wind speed undulation in the layer from k _p z = 0.1 to k _p z = 3 (k _p is the swell wavenumber) are in good agreement with the theory of inviscid shear flow over a wavy surface. The main feature of the vertical profile of the swell-induced undulation is the exponential attenuation of its amplitude with height typical for the potential flow over the fast running waves. At the lowest levels the potential undulations are significantly distorted by the wind-speed variations caused by the vertical displacements of the shear airflow relative to a fixed sensor. No direct impact of swell on the mean properties of the turbulent boundary layer at k _p z > 0.1 is revealed. In particular, the mean wind-speed profile and spectra of the horizontal velocity in the inertial subrange obey Monin-Obukhov similarity theory.     

Formulation of stability-dependent empirical relations for turbulent intensities from surface layer turbulence measurements for dispersion parameterization in a lagrangian particle dispersion model

Season- and stability-dependent turbulence intensity (σ _u /u _*, σ _v /u _*, σ _w /u _*) relationships are derived from experimental turbulence measurements following surface layer scaling and local stability at the tropical coastal site Kalpakkam, India for atmospheric dispersion parameterization. Turbulence wind components (u′, v′, w′) measured with fast response UltraSonic Anemometers during an intense observation campaign for wind field modeling called Round Robin Exercise are used to formulate the flux–profile relationships using surface layer similarity theory and Fast Fourier Transform technique. The new relationships (modified Hanna scheme) are incorporated in a Lagrangian Particle Dispersion model FLEXPART-WRF and tested by conducting simulations for a field tracer dispersion experiment at Kalpakkam. Plume dispersion analysis of a ground level hypothetical release indicated that the new turbulent intensity formulations provide slightly higher diffusivity across the plume relative to the original Hanna scheme. The new formulations for σ _u , σ _v , σ _w are found to give better agreement with observed turbulent intensities during both stable and unstable conditions under various seasonal meteorological conditions. The simulated concentrations using the two methods are compared with those obtained from a classical Gaussian model and the observed SF₆ concentration. It has been found that the new relationships provide comparatively higher diffusion across the plume relative to the model default Hanna scheme and provide downwind concentration results in better agreement with observations.     

Development and Validation of an Evaporation Duct Model.Part Ⅰ:Model Establishment and Sensitivity Experiments

Based on the Coupled Ocean-Atmospheric Response Experiment（COARE）bulk algorithm and the Naval Postgraduate School（NPS）model,a universal evaporation duct（UED）model that can flexibly accommodate the latest improvements in component（such as stability function,velocity roughness,and scalar roughness）schemes for different stratification and wind conditions,is proposed in this paper.With the UED model,the sensitivity of the model-derived evaporation duct height（EDH）to stability function（Ψ）,ocean wave effect under moderate to high wind speeds,and scalar roughness length parameterization,is investigated,and relative contributions of these factors are compared.The results show that the stability function is a key factor influencing the simulated EDH values.Under unstable conditions,the EDH values from stability functions of Fairall et al.（1996）and Hu and Zhang（1992）are generally higher than those from others;while under stable conditions,unreasonably high EDHs can be avoided by use of the stability functions of Hu and Zhang（1992）and Grachev et al.（2007）.Under moderate to high wind speeds,the increase in velocity roughness length z₀ due to consideration of the true ocean wave effect acts to reduce modeled EDH values;this trend is more pronounced under stable conditions.Although the scalar roughness length parameterization has a minor effect on the model-derived EDH,a positive correlation is found between the scalar roughness length z_0qand the model-derived EDH.     

Multivariate drought frequency estimation using copula method in Southwest China

This study reveals the impacts of climatic variable trends on drought severity in Xinjiang, China. Four drought indices, including the self-calibrating Palmer drought severity index (sc-PDSI), Erinç’s index (I _m), Sahin’s index (I _sh), and UNEP aridity index (AI), were used to compare drought severity. The ensemble empirical mode decomposition and the modified Mann-Kendall trend test were applied to analyze the nonlinear components and trends of the climatic variable and drought indices. Four and six climatic scenarios were generated in sc-PDSI, I _m, I _sh, and AI with different combinations of the observed and detrended climatic variables, respectively. In Xinjiang, generally increasing trends in minimal, average, and maximal air temperature (T _min, T _ave, T _max) and precipitation (P) were found, whereas a decreasing trend in wind speed at 2 m height (U ₂) was observed. There were significantly increasing trends in all of the four studied drought indices. Drought relief was more obvious in northern Xinjiang than in southern Xinjiang. The strong influences of increased P on drought relief and the weak influences of increased T _min, T _ave, and T _max on drought aggravation were shown by comparing four drought indices under different climate scenarios. Decreased U ₂ had a weak influence on drought, as shown by the AI in different climate scenarios. The weak influences of T and U ₂ were considered to be masked by the strong influences of P on droughts. Droughts were expected to be more severe if P did not increase, but were likely milder without an increase in air temperature and with a decrease in U ₂.     

On the extension of the wind profile over homogeneous terrain beyond the surface boundary layer

Analysis of profiles of meteorological measurements from a 160 m high mast at the National Test Site for wind turbines at Høvsøre (Denmark) and at a 250 m high TV tower at Hamburg (Germany) shows that the wind profile based on surface-layer theory and Monin-Obukhov scaling is valid up to a height of 50–80 m. At higher levels deviations from the measurements progressively occur. For applied use an extension to the wind profile in the surface layer is formulated for the entire boundary layer, with emphasis on the lowest 200–300 m and considering only wind speeds above 3 m s^?1 at 10 m height. The friction velocity is taken to decrease linearly through the boundary layer. The wind profile length scale is composed of three component length scales. In the surface layer the first length scale is taken to increase linearly with height with a stability correction following Monin-Obukhov similarity. Above the surface layer the second length scale (L _MBL ) becomes independent of height but not of stability, and at the top of the boundary layer the third length scale is assumed to be negligible. A simple model for the combined length scale that controls the wind profile and its stability dependence is formulated by inverse summation. Based on these assumptions the wind profile for the entire boundary layer is derived. A parameterization of L _MBL is formulated using the geostrophic drag law, which relates friction velocity and geostrophic wind. The empirical parameterization of the resistance law functions A and B in the geostrophic drag law is uncertain, making it impractical. Therefore an expression for the length scale, L _MBL , for applied use is suggested, based on measurements from the two sites.     

Atmospheric circulation epochs and climate changes

The atmospheric circulation studies allow climate changes to be diagnosed and forecasted. Variations in occurrence frequencies of the atmospheric circulation forms W, E, and C (by the Vangengeim classification) and Z, M ₁, and M ₂ (by the Girs classification), which characterize climatic conditions in most of the Northern Hemisphere, are analyzed over a period of more than 100 years. It is shown that the occurrence frequency of the forms W, C, and M ₁ continually decreased, while that of the forms E and Z increased, which indicates a significant change in atmospheric circulation in the Northern Hemisphere during the last century. The occurrence frequency of the forms C and Z demonstrates specific features at inter-decade time scales. Correlations are found between accumulated sums of anomalies of occurrence frequencies of the atmospheric circulation forms C, (W + E), Z, and (M ₁ + M ₂) and inter-decade variations of the Earth’s rotation. The causes of these relationships are discussed along with possibilities of their use for diagnosis of climatic variations in the Northern Hemisphere.     

Projected Changes in Extreme High Temperature and Heat Stress in China

High temperature accompanied with high humidity may result in unbearable and oppressive weather. In this study, future changes of extreme high temperature and heat stress in mainland China are examined based on daily maximum temperature (T_x) and daily maximum wet-bulb globe temperature (T_w). T_w has integrated the effects of both temperature and humidity. Future climate projections are derived from the bias-corrected climate data of five general circulation models under the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 2.6 and 8.5 scenarios. Changes of hot days and heat waves in July and August in the future (particularly for 2020–50 and 2070–99), relative to the baseline period (1981–2010), are estimated and analyzed. The results show that the future T_x and T_w of entire China will increase by 1.5–5°C on average around 2085 under different RCPs. Future increases in T_x and T_w exhibit high spatial heterogeneity, ranging from 1.2 to 6°C across different regions and RCPs. By around 2085, the mean duration of heat waves will increase by 5 days per annum under RCP8.5. According to T_x, heat waves will mostly occur in Northwest and Southeast China, whereas based on T_w estimates, heat waves will mostly occur over Southeast China and the mean heat wave duration will be much longer than those from T_x. The total extreme hot days (T_x or T_w > 35°C) will increase by 10–30 days. Southeast China will experience the severest heat stress in the near future as extreme high temperature and heat waves will occur more often in this region, which is particularly true when heat waves are assessed based on T_w. In comparison to those purely temperature-based indices, the index T_w provides a new perspective for heat stress assessment in China.     

Analysis of photosynthetically active radiation and applied parameterization model for estimating of PAR in the North China Plain

As photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) variability and PAR estimating methods play an important role in climate change and ecological process research, PAR variation trends and broadband global solar radiation (R _s ) ratios (PAR/R _s ) in the North China Plain (NCP) are examined using in situ PAR and R _s observed data for 2005 to 2011. The annual average PAR value found in the NCP is 22.9 mol m^?2 d^?1. The highest and lowest values were recorded at Changwu and Luancheng sites, respectively. The highest PAR/R _s value was found in Jiaozhouwan due to large water vapor volumes present in this area. PAR/R _s levels have increased in the NCP due to a decrease in fine aerosols and increase in water vapor concentration. From these analysis results, a parameterization model that can be applied to all sky conditions was checked. Empirical estimation model comparisons for obtaining PAR values indicate that model was least accurate when R _s was used independently. When the model included R _s, the clearness index (K _s) and the solar zenith angle, the model estimated PAR values with acceptable accuracy. A parameterization model was constructed by considering K _s and attenuation factors of PAR under clear weather conditions (ρ _clear). The improved parameterization model more accurately predicts values for local sites and for various observation sites.     

Investigation of Primary Factors Affecting the Variation of Modeled Oak Pollen Concentrations: A Case Study for Southeast Texas in 2010

Oak pollen concentrations over the Houston-Galveston-Brazoria (HGB) area in southeastern Texas were modeled and evaluated against in-situ data. We modified the Community Multi-scale Air Quality (CMAQ) model to include oak pollen emission, dispersion, and deposition. The Oak Pollen Emission Model (OPEM) calculated gridded oak pollen emissions, which are based on a parameterized equation considering a plant-specific factor (C _e ), surface characteristics, and meteorology. The simulation period was chosen to be February 21 to April 30 in the spring of 2010, when the observed monthly mean oak pollen concentrations were the highest in six years (2009-2014). The results indicated C _e and meteorology played an important role in the calculation of oak pollen emissions. While C _e was critical in determining the magnitude of oak pollen emissions, meteorology determined their variability. In particular, the contribution of the meteorology to the variation in oak pollen emissions increased with the oak pollen emission rate. The evaluation results using in-situ surface data revealed that the model underestimated pollen concentrations and was unable to accurately reproduce the peak pollen episodes. The model error was likely due to uncertainty in climatology-based C _e used for the estimation of oak pollen emissions and inaccuracy in the wind fields from the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model.     

A compact form for the analytic description of temperature dependence of saturation vapor pressure over plane surfaces of water and ice

A possibility is studied of extending the range of action of the simple three-parameter formula (ITS-90 scale) proposed in the previous work of the author [2] for the dependence of saturation vapor pressure E on temperature T within the range of 250 to 490 K. The results demonstrated that the dependence ln[E(T)/E(T _bas)] = (T - T _bas)[A - B(T - T _bas) + C(T - T _bas)²]/T with four sets of coefficients A, B, and C obtained using one base temperature Tbas equal to the temperature of triple point of water T _t = 273.16 K and two additional base values T _bas2 = 473.16 K and T _bas3 = 623.16 K makes it possible to approximate rather accurately the initial experimental and computed data in the temperature range from the point of homogeneous freezing of 235 K to the critical temperature of 647 K for liquid water and from 193 K to T _t for ice. A procedure used for obtaining the inverse function T(E) by solving the third-degree algebraic equation is validated. A hypothesis is proposed for the physical substantiation of additional base points in the form of “a noticeable appearance of dimers at the point T _bas2 and their 100% concentration at the temperature T _bas3.”     

Classification of Vertical Wind Speed Profiles Observed Above a Sloping Forest at Nighttime Using the Bulk Richardson Number

Wind speed profiles above a forest canopy relate to scalar exchange between the forest canopy and the atmosphere. Many studies have reported that vertical wind speed profiles above a relatively flat forest can be classified by a stability index developed assuming wind flow above a flat plane. However, can such a stability index be used to classify vertical wind speed profiles observed above a sloping forest at nighttime, where drainage flow often occurs? This paper examines the use of the bulk Richardson number to classify wind speed profiles observed above a sloping forest at nighttime. Wind speed profiles above a sloping forest were classified by the bulk Richardson number Ri _B . Use of Ri _B distinguished between drainage flow, shear flow, and transitional flow from drainage flow to shear flow. These results suggest that Ri _B is useful to interpret nighttime CO₂ and energy fluxes above a sloping forest. Through clear observational evidence, we also show that the reference height should be high enough to avoid drainage-flow effects when calculating Ri _B .     

Characteristics of the precipitation recycling ratio and its relationship with regional precipitation in China

A dynamic recycling model (DRM) with an analytical moisture trajectory tracking method, together with Japan Meteorological Agency 25-year reanalysis data, is used to study the regional precipitation recycling process across China, by calculating the regional recycling ratio (ρ _r ) at the daily time scale during 1979–2010. The distribution of ρ _r shows that, in western China, especially the Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding areas, precipitation is strongly dependent on the recycling process associated with regional evaporation. In Southeast China, however, the contribution from the recycling processes is much smaller due to the influence of the summer monsoon. A precipitation threshold value of about 4 mm/day is obtained from detailed analysis of both extreme and all-range ρ _r years. According to this threshold, China is classified into three types of sub-regions: low-precipitation sub-regions (mainly in the northwest), high-precipitation sub-regions (mainly in the south), and medium-precipitation sub-regions (mainly in the northeast). It is found that ρ _r correlates positively with precipitation, as well as convective precipitation (P _CP) and large-scale precipitation (P _LP) in the low-precipitation sub-regions. However, negative ρ _r ?～?P _LP correlations are found in the high-precipitation sub-regions and nonsignificant correlations exist in the medium-precipitation sub-regions. As P _CP is mainly locally generated due to mid-latitude mesoscale systems and the cumulus parameterization used in producing the reanalysis, the recycling ratio positively correlates to the ratio P _CP/P _LP in almost all sub-regions, particularly in the Tibetan Plateau and its surrounding areas. The correlation between radiation flux and ρ _r suggests more net radiation supports more evaporation and higher ρ _r , especially in the high-precipitation sub-regions. The influence of clouds on shortwave radiation is crucial, since evaporation is suppressed when the amount of cloudiness increases, especially in the high-precipitation sub-regions. Together with the consideration of soil moisture, it can be inferred that limited soil moisture inhibits evaporation in the low-precipitation sub-regions, while the energy or radiation is the dominant factor controlling evaporation in the high-precipitation sub-regions.     

Evaluation of two momentum control variable schemes and their impact on the variational assimilation of radarwind data: Case study of a squall line

Different choices of control variables in variational assimilation can bring about different influences on the analyzed atmospheric state. Based on the WRF model’s three-dimensional variational assimilation system, this study compares the behavior of two momentum control variable options—streamfunction velocity potential (ψ–χ) and horizontal wind components (U–V)—in radar wind data assimilation for a squall line case that occurred in Jiangsu Province on 24 August 2014. The wind increment from the single observation test shows that the ψ–χ control variable scheme produces negative increments in the neighborhood around the observation point because streamfunction and velocity potential preserve integrals of velocity. On the contrary, the U–V control variable scheme objectively reflects the information of the observation itself. Furthermore, radial velocity data from 17 Doppler radars in eastern China are assimilated. As compared to the impact of conventional observation, the assimilation of radar radial velocity based on the U–V control variable scheme significantly improves the mesoscale dynamic field in the initial condition. The enhanced low-level jet stream, water vapor convergence and low-level wind shear result in better squall line forecasting. However, the ψ–χ control variable scheme generates a discontinuous wind field and unrealistic convergence/divergence in the analyzed field, which lead to a degraded precipitation forecast.     

Comprehensive modeling of monthly mean soil temperature using multivariate adaptive regression splines and support vector machine

Soil temperature (T _s) and its thermal regime are the most important factors in plant growth, biological activities, and water movement in soil. Due to scarcity of the T _s data, estimation of soil temperature is an important issue in different fields of sciences. The main objective of the present study is to investigate the accuracy of multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS) and support vector machine (SVM) methods for estimating the T _s. For this aim, the monthly mean data of the T _s (at depths of 5, 10, 50, and 100 cm) and meteorological parameters of 30 synoptic stations in Iran were utilized. To develop the MARS and SVM models, various combinations of minimum, maximum, and mean air temperatures (T _min, T _max, T); actual and maximum possible sunshine duration; sunshine duration ratio (n, N, n/N); actual, net, and extraterrestrial solar radiation data (R _s, R _n, R _a); precipitation (P); relative humidity (RH); wind speed at 2 m height (u ₂); and water vapor pressure (V_p) were used as input variables. Three error statistics including root-mean-square-error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and determination coefficient (R ²) were used to check the performance of MARS and SVM models. The results indicated that the MARS was superior to the SVM at different depths. In the test and validation phases, the most accurate estimations for the MARS were obtained at the depth of 10 cm for T _max, T _min, T inputs (RMSE = 0.71 °C, MAE = 0.54 °C, and R ² = 0.995) and for RH, V _p, P, and u ₂ inputs (RMSE = 0.80 °C, MAE = 0.61 °C, and R ² = 0.996), respectively.     

Characteristics of Turbulent Transfer during Episodes of Heavy Haze Pollution in Beijing in Winter 2016/17

We analyzed the structure and evolution of turbulent transfer and the wind profile in the atmospheric boundary layer in relation to aerosol concentrations during an episode of heavy haze pollution from 6 December 2016 to 9 January 2017. The turbulence data were recorded at Peking University’s atmospheric science and environment observation station. The results showed a negative correlation between the wind speed and the PM_2.5 concentration. The turbulence kinetic energy was large and showed obvious diurnal variations during unpolluted (clean) weather, but was small during episodes of heavy haze pollution. Under both clean and heavy haze conditions, the relation between the non-dimensional wind components and the stability parameter z/L followed a 1/3 power law, but the normalized standard deviations of the wind speed were smaller during heavy pollution events than during clean periods under near-neutral conditions. Under unstable conditions, the normalized standard deviation of the potential temperature σ _θ /|θ_*| was related to z/L, roughly following a –1/3 power law, and the ratio during pollution days was greater than that during clean days. The three-dimensional turbulence energy spectra satisfied a –2/3 power exponent rate in the high-frequency band. In the low-frequency band, the wind velocity spectrum curve was related to the stability parameters under clear conditions, but was not related to atmospheric stratification under polluted conditions. In the dissipation stage of the heavy pollution episode, the horizontal wind speed first started to increase at high altitudes and then gradually decreased at lower altitudes. The strong upward motion during this stage was an important dynamic factor in the dissipation of the heavy haze.     

Effects of optimized root water uptake parameterization schemes on water and heat flux simulation in a maize agroecosystem

As root water uptake (RWU) is an important link in the water and heat exchange between plants and ambient air, improving its parameterization is key to enhancing the performance of land surface model simulations. Although different types of RWU functions have been adopted in land surface models, there is no evidence as to which scheme most applicable to maize farmland ecosystems. Based on the 2007–09 data collected at the farmland ecosystem field station in Jinzhou, the RWU function in the Common Land Model (CoLM) was optimized with scheme options in light of factors determining whether roots absorb water from a certain soil layer (W_x) and whether the baseline cumulative root efficiency required for maximum plant transpiration (W_c) is reached. The sensibility of the parameters of the optimization scheme was investigated, and then the effects of the optimized RWU function on water and heat flux simulation were evaluated. The results indicate that the model simulation was not sensitive to W_x but was significantly impacted by W_c. With the original model, soil humidity was somewhat underestimated for precipitation-free days; soil temperature was simulated with obvious interannual and seasonal differences and remarkable underestimations for the maize late-growth stage; and sensible and latent heat fluxes were overestimated and underestimated, respectively, for years with relatively less precipitation, and both were simulated with high accuracy for years with relatively more precipitation. The optimized RWU process resulted in a significant improvement of CoLM’s performance in simulating soil humidity, temperature, sensible heat, and latent heat, for dry years. In conclusion, the optimized RWU scheme available for the CoLM model is applicable to the simulation of water and heat flux for maize farmland ecosystems in arid areas.     

Relationship Between Fine-Particle Pollution and the Urban Heat Island in Beijing,China: Observational Evidence

Urbanization has led to a significant urban heat island (UHI) effect in Beijing in recent years. At the same time, air pollution caused by a large number of fine particles significantly influences the atmospheric environment, urban climate, and human health. The distribution of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) concentration and its relationship with the UHI effect in the Beijing area are analyzed based on station-observed hourly data from 2012 to 2016. We conclude that, (1) in the last five years, the surface concentrations of PM_2.5 averaged for urban and rural sites in and around Beijing are 63.2 and 40.7 µg m^?3, respectively, with significant differences between urban and rural sites (ΔPM_2.5) at the seasonal, monthly and daily scales observed; (2) there is a large correlation between ΔPM_2.5 and the UHI intensity defined as the differences in the mean (ΔT_ave), minimum (ΔT_min), and maximum (ΔT_max) temperatures between urban and rural sites. The correlation between ΔPM_2.5 and ΔT_min (ΔT_max) is the highest (lowest); (3) a Granger causality analysis further shows that ΔPM_2.5 and ΔT_min are most correlated for a lag of 1–2 days, while the correlation between ΔPM_2.5 and ΔT_ave is lower; there is no causal relationship between ΔPM_2.5 and ΔT_max; (4) a case analysis shows that downwards shortwave radiation at the surface decreases with an increase in PM_2.5 concentration, leading to a weaker UHI intensity during the daytime. During the night, the outgoing longwave radiation from the surface decreases due to the presence of daytime pollutants, the net effect of which is a slower cooling rate during the night in cities than in the suburbs, leading to a larger ΔT_min.     

Parameterization of sheared entrainment in a well-developed CBL. Part I: Evaluation of the scheme through large-eddy simulations

The entrainment flux ratio A _e and the inversion layer (IL) thickness are two key parameters in a mixed layer model. A _e is defined as the ratio of the entrainment heat flux at the mixed layer top to the surface heat flux. The IL is the layer between the mixed layer and the free atmosphere. In this study, a parameterization of A _e is derived from the TKE budget in the firstorder model for a well-developed CBL under the condition of linearly sheared geostrophic velocity with a zero value at the surface. It is also appropriate for a CBL under the condition of geostrophic velocity remaining constant with height. LESs are conducted under the above two conditions to determine the coefficients in the parameterization scheme. Results suggest that about 43% of the shear-produced TKE in the IL is available for entrainment, while the shear-produced TKE in the mixed layer and surface layer have little effect on entrainment. Based on this scheme, a new scale of convective turbulence velocity is proposed and applied to parameterize the IL thickness. The LES outputs for the CBLs under the condition of linearly sheared geostrophic velocity with a non-zero surface value are used to verify the performance of the parameterization scheme. It is found that the parameterized A _e and IL thickness agree well with the LES outputs.     

Effect of solubility limitation on hygroscopic growth and cloud drop activation of SOA particles produced from traffic exhausts

Hygroscopicity measurements of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) particles often show inconsistent results between the supersaturated and subsaturated regimes, with higher activity as cloud condensation nucleus (CCN) than indicated by hygroscopic growth. In this study, we have investigated the discrepancy between the two regimes in the Lund University (LU) smog chamber. Various anthropogenic SOA were produced from mixtures of different precursors: anthropogenic light aromatic precursors (toluene and m-xylene), exhaust from a diesel passenger vehicle spiked with the light aromatic precursors, and exhaust from two different gasoline-powered passenger vehicles. Three types of seed particles were used: soot aggregates from a diesel vehicle, soot aggregates from a flame soot generator and ammonium sulphate (AS) particles. The hygroscopicity of seed particles with condensed, photochemically produced, anthropogenic SOA was investigated with respect to critical supersaturation (s_c) and hygroscopic growth factor (gf) at 90% relative humidity. The hygroscopicity parameter κ was calculated for the two regimes: κ_sc and κ_gf, from measurements of s_c and gf, respectively. The two κ showed significant discrepancies, with a κ_gf /κ_sc ratio closest to one for the gasoline experiments with ammonium sulphate seed and lower for the soot seed experiments. Empirical observations of s_c and gf were compared to theoretical predictions, using modified Köhler theory where water solubility limitations were taken into account. The results indicate that the inconsistency between measurements in the subsaturated and supersaturated regimes may be explained by part of the organic material in the particles produced from anthropogenic precursors having a limited solubility in water.     

Uncertainty of global summer precipitation in the CMIP5 models: a comparison between high-resolution and low-resolution models

Worldwide, the majority of rapidly growing neighborhoods are found in the Global South. They often exhibit different building construction and development patterns than the Global North, and urban climate research in many such neighborhoods has to date been sparse. This study presents local-scale observations of net radiation (Q _* ) and sensible heat flux (Q _H ) from a lightweight low-rise neighborhood in the desert climate of Andacollo, Chile, and compares observations with results from a process-based urban energy-balance model (TUF3D) and a local-scale empirical model (LUMPS) for a 14-day period in autumn 2009. This is a unique neighborhood-climate combination in the urban energy-balance literature, and results show good agreement between observations and models for Q _* and Q _H . The unmeasured latent heat flux (Q _E ) is modeled with an updated version of TUF3D and two versions of LUMPS (a forward and inverse application). Both LUMPS implementations predict slightly higher Q _E than TUF3D, which may indicate a bias in LUMPS parameters towards mid-latitude, non-desert climates. Overall, the energy balance is dominated by sensible and storage heat fluxes with mean daytime Bowen ratios of 2.57 (observed Q _H /LUMPS Q _E )–3.46 (TUF3D). Storage heat flux (ΔQ _S ) is modeled with TUF3D, the empirical objective hysteresis model (OHM), and the inverse LUMPS implementation. Agreement between models is generally good; the OHM-predicted diurnal cycle deviates somewhat relative to the other two models, likely because OHM coefficients are not specified for the roof and wall construction materials found in this neighborhood. New facet-scale and local-scale OHM coefficients are developed based on modeled ΔQ _S and observed Q _* . Coefficients in the empirical models OHM and LUMPS are derived from observations in primarily non-desert climates in European/North American neighborhoods and must be updated as measurements in lightweight low-rise (and other) neighborhoods in various climates become available.