富碱斑岩成因与Cu—Mo—Au矿床成矿作用——以金沙江—红河富碱斑岩成矿带为例

富碱斑岩因其产出构造环境独特、岩石类型特殊,并常与铜多金属矿床密切相关,而受到广泛关注。笔者等在回顾相关研究进展的基础上,通过岩石成因和构造环境、岩浆性质和岩浆源区等方面的综合研究,探讨了金沙江—红河富碱斑岩成矿带富碱岩浆成矿作用及成岩成矿机制。系统的矿床地质、年代学、地球化学等研究表明：(1)金沙江—红河富碱斑岩成矿带内成岩成矿作用集中于43～32 Ma,成矿富碱斑岩系始新世—渐新世I型钾玄质花岗斑岩,是印—亚大陆后碰撞背景下大陆内部大型走滑和伸展等动力过程诱导的岩浆活动产物,金沙江和哀牢山—红河断裂的差异走滑运动可能控制了成矿带差异性成岩成矿事件;(2)成矿带北段以Cu—Mo为主的成矿富碱斑岩源自新元古代下地壳的部分熔融,且源区有富集地幔和亏损地幔物质的加入,而南段以Cu—Au或Cu(—Mo—Au)为主的成矿富碱斑岩源自具有不同程度富集地幔物质加入的新生下地壳的部分熔融;(3)带内以Cu为主的斑岩—矽卡岩型矿床中成矿富碱斑岩的氧逸度(ΔFMQ)与矿床规模具有正相关性。除受氧逸度控制外,源区高K₂O含量有利于斑岩—矽卡岩型Au矿床的形成。该研究对金沙江—红河富碱...     

富碱斑岩成因与Cu—Mo—Au矿床成矿作用——以金沙江—红河富碱斑岩成矿带为例

富碱斑岩因其产出构造环境独特、岩石类型特殊,并常与铜多金属矿床密切相关,而受到广泛关注。本文在回顾相关研究进展的基础上,通过岩石成因和构造环境、岩浆性质和岩浆源区等方面的综合研究,探讨了金沙江—红河富碱斑岩成矿带富碱岩浆成矿作用及成岩成矿机制。系统的矿床地质、年代学、地球化学等研究表明：① 金沙江—红河富碱斑岩成矿带内成岩成矿作用集中于43~32 Ma,成矿富碱斑岩系始新世—渐新世I型钾玄质花岗斑岩,是印—亚大陆后碰撞背景下大陆内部大型走滑和伸展等动力过程诱导的岩浆活动产物,金沙江和哀牢山—红河断裂的差异走滑运动可能控制了成矿带差异性成岩成矿事件;② 成矿带北段以Cu—Mo为主的成矿富碱斑岩源自新元古代下地壳的部分熔融,且源区有富集地幔和亏损地幔物质的加入,而南段以Cu—Au或Cu(—Mo—Au)为主的成矿富碱斑岩源自具有不同程度富集地幔物质加入的新生下地壳的部分熔融;③ 带内以Cu为主的斑岩—矽卡岩型矿床中成矿富碱斑岩的氧逸度（ΔFMQ）与矿床规模具有正相关性。除受氧逸度控制外,源区高K2O含量有利于斑岩—矽卡岩型Au矿床的形成。该研究对金沙江—红河富碱斑岩成矿带乃至同类矿床研究和找矿勘查具有理论和实际意义。     

云南宝丰寺岩体锆石微量元素特征及地质意义

云南宝丰寺岩体地处扬子陆块西缘金沙江-红河断裂与程海-宾川断裂夹持部位,属于金沙江-红河富碱斑岩带组成部分,由细晶黑云母花岗斑岩(FCBGP)和粗晶花岗斑岩(CGGP)组成。通过对宝丰寺岩体开展的锆石Ti温度、锆石Ce~(4+)/Ce~(3+)值和δEu和δCe值研究结果表明:两类岩石锆石Ti温度相差不大(FCBGP为618.55℃—792.75℃,均值为692.42℃;CGGP为560.35℃～820.41℃,均值为714.13℃),与S型花岗岩浆形成温度相似,反映宝丰寺岩体属S型花岗岩;锆石Ce~(4+)/Ce~(3+)值、δEu和δCe值总体较高(FCBGP的Ce~(4+)/Ce~(3+)值、δEu和δCe分别为24.51～1190.06、0.32～0.49和10.17～1231.19,均值分别为390.36、0.42和264.29;CGGP的Ce~(4+)/Ce~(3+)值、δEu和δCe分别为50.13～494.56、0.44～0.58和24.87～262.76,均值分别为232.98、0.49和141.82),与金沙江-红河富碱斑岩带含矿岩体特征值类似,表明宝丰寺岩体形成于高氧逸度环境,有利于岩浆体系中的成矿金属元素保留至岩浆分异演化的晚阶段,有利于形成斑岩型矿床。     

冈底斯中段岗讲斑岩铜钼矿床锆石U-Pb和辉钼矿Re-Os年代学及其地质意义

岗讲铜钼矿床是西藏冈底斯成矿带中段典型的斑岩型矿床,岗讲矿床成岩成矿时代、岩浆演化过程及其与成岩成矿关系尚不明确,利用LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年方法对岗讲矿区主要岩体二长花岗斑岩、花岗闪长斑岩和英云闪长玢岩成岩时代进行研究,获得锆石U-Pb年龄加权平均值分别为16.6±0.3 Ma (MSWD=0.94,n=10)、16.1±0.2 Ma (MSWD=1.07,n=12)、14.4±0.4 Ma (MSWD=1.12,n=7);同时采用辉钼矿Re-Os同位素测年方法首次对岗讲矿床石英硫化物脉中的辉钼矿进行定年,获得12件辉钼矿Re-Os同位素模式年龄集中于13.24±0.20 Ma~13.55±0.22 Ma,加权平均年龄为13.4±0.1 Ma (MSWD=0.65),等时线年龄为13.6±1.6 Ma (MSWD=1.2).结果表明:(1) 岗讲矿区复式岩体侵入序列为含巨斑黑云二长花岗岩-二长花岗斑岩-花岗闪长斑岩-流纹斑岩 (深部定名为英云闪长玢岩),成岩时限为16.6~14.4 Ma,成矿时代为13.4 Ma左右,成岩成矿是一个连续的岩浆演化过程;(2) 辉钼矿中Re含量为155.4~171.1 μg/g,均值为162.9 μg/g,指示其成矿物质中有幔源成分的加入;(3) 矿床产出于中新世印度-亚洲大陆碰撞后伸展构造环境.      

西藏邦铺斑岩型钼铜多金属矿床含钼铜脉石英的激光显微探针~(40)Ar/~(39)Ar年龄及地质意义

采用激光显微探针40Ar/39Ar微区定年方法,对西藏邦铺钼铜多金属矿床中含矿脉石英进行微区年代测定,获得等时线年龄为13.9 Ma±0.9 Ma(MSWD=29),其下限(13 Ma)代表了成矿年龄。该年龄略晚于二长花岗斑岩结晶年龄(13.9 Ma±0.3 Ma,MSWD=3.05),表明邦铺矿床成岩成矿作用是一个连续的岩浆作用过程。同时对冈底斯斑岩铜矿带成岩-成矿年龄进行统计学研究,获得冈底斯斑岩铜矿带成岩-成矿作用高峰期为15 Ma,成岩-成矿年龄线性方程为Y岩=1.291X矿+7.785(R2=0.291),充分说明邦铺矿床与冈底斯斑岩铜矿一样,是一次大规模爆发成矿的过程,成矿事件发生具有高度的统一性与集中性。     

云南宾川小龙潭矿区花岗斑岩年代学、地球化学及成因

云南宾川小龙潭矿区斑岩体位于扬子板块西缘程海断裂带东侧,属金沙江-红河富碱侵入岩带组成部分.本文对矿区内与成矿密切相关的花岗斑岩进行了岩石学、年代学及地球化学研究.结果显示:花岗斑岩由二长花岗斑岩(MGP)和钾长花岗斑岩(KGP)组成,二者岩相学特征相似,空间上无明显分带关系,呈过渡渐变关系,具典型斑状结构.二长花岗斑岩和钾长花岗斑岩均具富碱、低钛和准铝质-弱过铝质特征,属准铝质-弱过铝质钾玄岩系列富碱斑岩;二者富集轻稀土元素(LREE)和大离子亲石元素(Rb、Ba、U),亏损重稀土元素(HREE)和高场强元素(Ta、Nb、Ti,Zr,Hf),具有较高Sr含量和Sr/Y值,中等负Eu异常(δEu=0.39～0.78),表现出C型埃达克质岩地球化学特征.二长花岗斑岩和钾长花岗斑岩具相似的地球化学特征,表明它们属同源岩浆演化产物.二长花岗斑岩锆石U-Pb年龄为34.7±0.3 Ma,反映其形成于古近纪始新世,与金沙江-红河富碱侵入岩活动高峰期(45～30 Ma)吻合.综合研究表明,小龙潭矿区花岗斑岩属具C型埃达克质岩地球化学特征的花岗岩,起源于底侵作用带来的幔源岩浆与石榴角闪岩相加厚下地壳部分熔融的混合岩浆,是印度-欧亚板块晚碰撞期力学性质由挤压向伸展转化动力学背景下的产物,具备成矿作用发生的物质基础,有较好的成矿潜力.     

云南马厂箐岩体中深源包体特征及其锆石LA-ICP-MSU-Pb年龄

马厂箐岩体属于滇西富碱侵入岩的重要组成部分,在马厂箐岩体中发现了镁铁质暗色深源包体,这对于研究滇西富碱侵入岩带的起源、演化、成岩成矿作用以及区域地球动力学机制具有重要意义。本文基于对深源包体地质特征研究,通过开展LA-ICPMSU-Pb锆石定年,得到花岗斑岩中镁铁质深源包体锆石U-Pb加权平均年龄为35.13±0.23Ma(MSWD=0.64),与其寄主岩花岗斑岩年龄(35.0±0.2Ma)和(似)斑状花岗岩年龄(33.78±0.21Ma)较为一致,结合深源包体及其寄主岩锆石的Th/U比值及Ti温度计特征,证明了包体的岩浆混合成因。分析认为:马厂箐富碱侵入岩体为壳源岩浆与幔源岩浆混合作用的产物;包体与其寄主岩具有相同或相似的岩浆演化过程;35Ma左右存在幔源岩浆的底侵注入,幔源岩浆的注入混合可能是这套岩浆成矿的关键。     

云南澜沧老厂花岗斑岩形成年龄及地质意义

应用锆石SHRIMPU-Pb法和辉钼矿Re-Os同位素测年法对斑岩的形成时代进行精确定年。结果表明:成矿花岗斑岩体的形成年龄为44.6±1.1Ma;辉钼矿Re-Os等时线年龄为43.78±0.78Ma;成岩成矿期与滇西新生代岩浆-成矿作用高峰期吻合。结合区域地质条件和岩浆的可能源岩年龄(126.7±3.5Ma～529.3±13Ma)等资料分析,提出花岗斑岩在成因上与印支地块与滇缅泰地块陆内俯冲碰撞引发的地幔上涌及地壳重熔作用有关,岩浆来源具壳-幔混合特征。研究还证实滇西地区喜山期存在与隐伏花岗斑岩有关的大规模成矿作用。     

滇西九顶山铜钼矿花岗斑岩成因:LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄、岩石地球化学和Sr-Nd-Hf同位素制约

对滇西九顶山铜钼矿床主要的含矿花岗斑岩开展了系统的年代学、岩石地球化学以及全岩Sr-Nd-Hf同位素的分析工作。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年结果表明,九顶山花岗斑岩成岩年龄为34.5~34.9 Ma,与已有的成矿年龄(33.9~35.3 Ma)一致或略早于成矿年龄,处在滇西新生代富碱岩浆活动高峰期内(45~30 Ma),属于青藏高原碰撞造山带的晚碰撞转换成矿作用(40~26 Ma)的产物。详细的岩石地球化学研究表明,研究区花岗斑岩有高硅(Si O2=62.86%~71.57%)、高钾(K2O/Na2O=1.64~2.78)和富碱(K2O+Na2O=8.98%~11.28%)的特点,属于钾玄岩系列岩石。岩体轻稀土元素富集(LREE/HREE=4.84~7.64),具有轻微的负铕异常(δEu=0.82~0.93),富集大离子亲石元素(Rb、Ba、Th、U)和亏损高场强元素(Nb、Ta、Zr、Hf)。Sr-Nd-Hf同位素的研究分析显示岩浆源区起源于"EMII型"富集地幔,"EMII型"富集地幔岩浆在上涌的过程中受到地壳物质的混染,形成壳幔混合源富钾含矿岩浆。     

金沙江-哀牢山构造带中段桃花村岩体的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年及地质意义

桃花村辉石角闪二长花岗斑岩位于金沙江-哀牢山构造带中段,是区内富碱斑岩带的组成部分。针对岩体中含有的单斜辉石,进行了其锆石U-Pb年龄和稀土元素组成分析。锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb测年表明,岩体侵位于35.9 Ma±0.5 Ma(MSWD=2.2,n=14),属始新世,与剑川-北衙区域已知新生代富碱性斑岩的年龄相近,也与整个金沙江-哀牢山剪切带新生代富碱岩浆岩的时代一致,认为与欧亚大陆碰撞后期陆内走滑拉分等作用引发的复杂壳幔作用密切相关,其演化过程中可能存在较多地幔物质的加入。     

Wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometric determination of Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th in komatiites

Komatiites are mantle-derived ultramafic volcanic rocks. Komatiites have been discovered in several States of India, notably in Karnataka. Studies on the distribution of trace-elements in the komatiites of India are very few. This paper proposes a simple, accurate, precise, rapid, and non-destructive wavelength-dispersive x-ray fluorescence (WDXRF) spectrometric technique for determining Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th in komatiites, and discusses the accuracy, precision, limits of detection, x-ray spectral-line interferences, inter-element effects, speed, advantages, and limitations of the technique. The accuracy of the technique is excellent (within 3%) for Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th and very good (within 4%) for Y. The precision is also excellent (within 3%) for Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th. The limits of detection are: 1 ppm for Sc and V; 2 ppm for Cr, Co, and Ni; 3 ppm for Cu, Zn, Rb, and Sr; 4 ppm for Y and Zr; 6 ppm for Nb; 10 ppm for Ba; 13 ppm for Pb; and 14 ppm for Th. The time taken for determining Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Ba, Pb, and Th in a batch of 24 samples of komatiites, for a replication of four analyses per sample, by one operator, using a manual WDXRF spectrometer, is only 60 hours.     

高压微波消解法测定醋酸纤维过滤器采集的微尘粒子中的砷镉钴铬铜铁锰镍铅钒锌

最新的流行病学研究表明,空气中较高浓度的悬浮细颗粒可能对人类的健康有不利的影响。根据该项研究显示,由于心脏病、慢性呼吸问题和肺功能指标恶化而导致死亡率的升高与细尘粒子有关。这些研究结果已经促使欧盟于1999年4月出台了限制空气中二氧化硫、二氧化氮、氧化氮、铅和颗粒物含量的法案(1999/30/EC),对各项指标包括对可吸入PM10颗粒的浓度提出了新的限制性指标。PM10颗粒是指可以通过预分级器分离采集的气体动力学直径小于10μm的细颗粒。目前研究的兴趣重点逐步偏向PM2.5这些更细微颗粒物,PM2.5这种颗粒物对健康有明显的不利影响。在欧盟指令2008/50/EC中,对PM10和PM2.5都提     

Isotopic systematics of He,Ar, S,Cu, Ni,Re, Os,Pb, U,Sm, Nd,Rb, Sr,Lu, and Hf in the rocks and ores of the Norilsk deposits

This paper reports the first results of a study of 11 isotope systems (³He/⁴He, ⁴⁰Ar/³⁶Ar, ³⁴S/³²S, ⁶⁵Cu/⁶³Cu, ⁶²Ni/⁶⁰Ni, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr, ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd, ^206–208Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, Hf–Nd, U–Pb, and Re–Os) in the rocks and ores of the Cu–Ni–PGE deposits of the Norilsk ore district. Almost all the results were obtained at the Center of Isotopic Research of the Karpinskii All-Russia Research Institute of Geology. The use of a number of independent genetic isotopic signatures and comprehensive isotopic knowledge provided a methodic basis for the interpretation of approximately 5000 isotopic analyses of various elements. The presence of materials from two sources, crust and mantle, was detected in the composition of the rocks and ores. The contribution of the crustal source is especially significant in the paleofluids (gas–liquid microinclusions) of the ore-forming medium. Crustal solutions were probably a transport medium during ore formation. Air argon is dominant in the ores, which indicates a connection between the paleofluids and the atmosphere. This suggests intense groundwater circulation during the crystallization of ore minerals. The age of the rocks and ores of the Norilsk deposits was determined. The stage of orebody formation is restricted to a narrow age interval of 250 ± 10 Ma. An isotopic criterion was proposed for the ore-bearing potential of mafic intrusions in the Norilsk–Taimyr region. It includes several interrelated isotopic ratios of various elements: He, Ar, S, and others.     

硅酸盐中铁、锰、钛、钙、钾、磷、硅、铝、镁、钠、锶、铷、钡的X-射线荧光光谱定量测定

本文介绍样品经四硼酸锂熔融制成玻璃小饼。采用Lachance模式和理论a系数来校正元素间的效应,由3080E型X-射线荧光谱仪和DF-350B数据处理系统完成硅酸盐中十三个项目的测定。     

硅酸盐类样品中硅、铁、铝、钛、锰、钙、镁、钾、钠和磷的x射线荧光光谱测定

本文拟定了一种以熔融法制备样片,用X射线荧光光谱测定硅酸盐类样品中Si、Fe、Al、Tj、Mn、Ca、Mg、K、Na、P等元素的分析方法。在对不同靶材X光管和分光晶体实验对比的基础上,选择了最佳的测量条件。该法具有快速、准确,测量范围广,检测限低,价格便宜等优点。经过近百个各种类型标样或管理样品的分析对比表明,本法不仅适用于硅酸盐类岩石样品的分析,还适用于铁矿、铝土矿、碳酸盐类岩矿样品以及水泥、耐火材料等样品的分析。     

Viscous, cohesive, non-Newtonian, depositing, radial slurry flow

Mining induced subsidence can significantly affect mining costs where major surface facilities and natural environment need to be protected. Overburden grout injection is a technology used to control coal mine subsidence by injecting the mine waste material extracted from the coal back into the inter-burden rock during longwall mining. The flowing slurry is here categorised as a nonlinear viscous cohesive (Bingham plastic) fluid. During longwall mining the grout slurry is pumped into the separated beds of the rock mass through a central vertical borehole, which is drilled deep into the inter-burden rock strata above the coal seam. However, a blockage can occur in the injection system when the slurry velocity falls below a certain critical threshold velocity, indicating a material phase change from cohesive-viscous to cohesive-frictional. In situ field injection tests through boreholes have been simulated at a smaller scale at the CSIRO laboratory in Brisbane by pumping the slurry through a radial disk (gap = 4 mm) from its centre. Laboratory experiments indicate a general, nonlinear, cohesive, viscous, frictional model for shear behaviour of the slurry, in which the material shear parameters are functions of the disk radial distance. Complete dimensional and dimensionless analytical solutions have been developed based on an approach related to Bingham–Herschel–Bulkley fluid mechanics. The derived formulae include relations for minimum pump pressure, local pressure and pressure gradient, wall shear stress, volume rate, velocity and velocity gradient. The theoretical results match the experimental measurements. The experiments covered slurries with maximum particle sizes of 0.5 to 2 mm with about 50% being larger than 100 µm. The viscosities at the various solids concentrations were measured with a standard torsion viscometer. This study differs from the previous research in several distinct aspects, namely, consideration of the variable shear parameters rather than fixed values, inclusion of total nonlinear behaviour, and implementation of a friction function to mimic behaviour of the deposited and consolidating stiff slurry, which can cause a significant pressure rise as a result of the increased shear resistance.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

岩石密度和超高压岩石折返速率

在常温常压条件下对中国大陆科学钻CCSD主孔100-3000米岩心样品进行了密度测量,建立了密度连续剖面,并界定了不同超高压岩石的密度值。通过对比高温高压物性实验资料,岩石密度随着退变程度增强而降低,榴辉岩密度变化序列为3.52g/cm3→3.49g/cm3→3.07g/cm3→2.93g/cm3。超高压长英质岩石密度变化序列为3.00g/cm→2.80g/cm3→2.65g/cm3。上述实验资料是讨论不同折返阶段岩石所受浮力的基础,为研究折返速率大小提供了基本参数。本文通过折返板块运动平衡时,上浮力与粘滞力平衡这一关系式,定量研究了大陆俯冲板块的折返速率,认为密度差产生上浮力从而引起折返,温度对板块折返速率的影响最为显著;密度差大小、折返角度、折返板块大小对折返速率也有直接的影响。定量模拟分析表明,在温度高于850℃时,板块的折返速率可以超过100mm/a;当温度降至700℃时,折返速率则低于1.5mm/a。作者认为在折返早期,温度较高,板块快速折返至60-70km榴辉岩相深度;随着传导散热,温度降低,板块以较慢的速率折返至中下地壳。折返速率的估算表明,浮力是板块折返第一阶段(从>100km深部折返至<40km的中下地壳)的主要驱动力。     

Regional distribution of Al,B, Ba,Ca, K,La, Mg,Mn, Na,P, Rb,Si, Sr,Th, U and Y in terrestrial moss within a 188,000 km2 area of the central Barents region: influence of geology,seaspray and human activity

Five hundred and ninety-eight samples of terrestrial moss (Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi) collected from a 188,000 km² area of the central Barents region (NE Norway, N Finland, NW Russia) were analysed by ICP-AES and ICP-MS. Analytical results for Al, B, Ba, Ca, K, La, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Rb, Si, Sr, Th, U and Y concentrations are reported here. Graphical methods of data analysis, such as geochemical maps, cumulative frequency diagrams, boxplots and scatterplots, are used to interpret the origin of the patterns for these elements. None of the elements reported here are emitted in significant amounts from the smelting industry on the Kola Peninsula. Despite the conventional view that moss chemistry reflects atmospheric element input, the nature of the underlying mineral substrate (regolith or bedrock) is found to have a considerable influence on moss composition for several elements. This influence of the chemistry of the mineral substrate can take place in a variety of ways. (1) It can be completely natural, reflecting the ability of higher plants to take up elements from deep soil horizons and shed them with litterfall onto the surface. (2) It can result from naturally increased soil dust input where vegetation is scarce due to harsh climatic conditions for instance. Alternatively, substrate influence can be enhanced by human activity, such as open-cast mining, creation of ‘technogenic deserts’, or handling, transport and storage of ore and ore products, all of which magnify the natural elemental flux from bedrock to ground vegetation. Seaspray is another natural process affecting moss composition in the area (Mg, Na), and this is most visible in the Norwegian part of the study area. Presence or absence of some plant species, e.g., lichens, seems to influence moss chemistry. This is shown by the low concentrations of B or K in moss on the Finnish and Norwegian side of the (fenced) border with Russia, contrasting with high concentrations on the other side (intensive reindeer husbandry west of the border has selectively depleted the lichen population).