华南沿海暖海雾过程中的湍流热量交换特征

湍流交换是海雾中的关键物理过程, 在海雾的热量和水汽平衡过程中起重要作用。本文根据2007年3月24～25日一次海雾的外场观测数据, 分析了海雾过程中近海面湍流热量交换特征; 并在区分风切变机械湍流与雾顶长波辐射冷却热力湍流的基础上, 着重分析了两种不同性质的湍流对海雾发展和维持的作用。结果表明: (1) 本次海雾是在西南低压和变性冷高压的控制下, 来自南海东部暖水区的空气平流在近岸冷海面上形成的暖海雾; 暖海雾中的湍流热量交换过程比冷海雾更为复杂; (2) 在暖海雾的形成和消散阶段, 风切变机械湍流的热量输送起主要作用; 而在发展和维持阶段, 既有风切变机械湍流的热量输送作用, 也有雾顶长波辐射冷却热力湍流的热量输送作用; (3) 风切变机械湍流向冷海面输送热量, 对近海面空气起到降温和增湿作用; 热力湍流同样向冷海面输送热量, 但对雾层起到增温和降湿作用; (4) 暖海雾中的湍流热量交换机制与雾层的非充分混合结构有密切关系。     

南京冬季一次雾过程宏微观结构的突变特征及成因分析

2006年冬, 利用系留气球探测系统、雾滴谱仪、能见度仪等仪器在南京北郊进行了雾的综合观测。本文选取2006年12月14日的一次浓雾过程, 利用边界层廓线、雾滴谱、能见度以及NCEP再分析资料, 深入研究雾顶和地面雾浓度的突变特征 (爆发性增强和迅速减弱过程) 及其成因。结果表明: 雾顶的爆发性发展是湍流促使水汽向上输送、 在上层逆温下累积并伴随大幅降温引起的; 地面雾浓度爆发性增强时, 近地层冷平流降温导致饱和水汽压减小, 同时上层系统性的下沉增温引起逆温增强, 水汽得以累积; 雾顶的迅速下降过程中, 雾顶部湍流发展, 同时下沉运动引起了气层增温、 雾体双层结构和低空急流的出现; 地面雾的迅速减弱是太阳辐射和动量下传共同作用的结果; 下沉运动对雾生消的作用具有双重性; 雾的双层结构出现在雾顶大幅下降过程中, 并加快了雾顶的下降速度, 这与以往研究中双层结构促使雾顶爆发性发展有很大差异。     

A Numerical Study of Sea-Fog Formation over Cold Sea Surface Using a One-Dimensional Turbulence Model Coupled with the Weather Research and Forecasting Model

The formation mechanism of a cold sea-fog case observed over the Yellow Sea near the western coastal area of the Korean Peninsula is investigated using numerical simulation with a one-dimensional turbulence model coupled with a three-dimensional regional model. The simulation was carried out using both Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches; both approaches produced sea fog in a manner consistent with observation. For the selected cold sea-fog case, the model results suggested the following: as warm and moist air flows over a cold sea surface, the lower part of the air column is modified by the turbulent exchange of heat and moisture and the diurnal variation in radiation. The modified boundary-layer structure represents a typical stable thermally internal boundary layer. Within the stable thermally internal boundary layer, the air temperature is decreased by radiative cooling and turbulent heat exchange but the moisture loss due to the downward vapour flux in the lowest part of the air column is compensated by moisture advection and therefore the dewpoint temperature does not decrease as rapidly as does the air temperature. Eventually water vapour saturation is achieved and the cold sea fog forms in the thermal internal boundary layer.     

A Heavy Sea Fog Event over the Yellow Sea in March 2005： Analysis and Numerical Modeling

In this paper, a heavy sea fog episode that occurred over the Yellow Sea on 9 March 2005 is investigated. The sea fog patch, with a spatial scale of several hundred kilometers at its mature stage, reduced visibility along the Shandong Peninsula coast to 100 m or much less at some sites. Satellite images, surface observations and soundings at islands and coasts, and analyses from the Japan Meteorology Agency （JMA） axe used to describe and analyze this event. The analysis indicates that this sea fog can be categorized as advection cooling fog. The main features of this sea fog including fog area and its movement axe reasonably reproduced by the Fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University/National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model （MM5）. Model results suggest that the formation and evolution of this event can be outlined as： （1） southerly warm/moist advection of low-level air resulted in a strong sea-surface-based inversion with a thickness of about 600 m; （2） when the inversion moved from the warmer East Sea to the colder Yellow Sea, a thermal internal boundary layer （TIBL） gradually formed at the base of the inversion while the sea fog grew in response to cooling and moistening by turbulence mixing; （3） the sea fog developed as the TIBL moved northward and （4） strong northerly cold and dry wind destroyed the TIBL and dissipated the sea fog. The principal findings of this study axe that sea fog forms in response to relatively persistent southerly waxm/moist wind and a cold sea surface, and that turbulence mixing by wind shear is the primary mechanism for the cooling and moistening the marine layer. In addition, the study of sensitivity experiments indicates that deterministic numerical modeling offers a promising approach to the prediction of sea fog over the Yellow Sea but it may be more efficient to consider ensemble numerical modeling because of the extreme sensitivity to model input.     

珠海三灶机场一次平流海雾的特征及成因初探

为进一步了解平流海雾的形成、发展和消散过程特点和机制,利用风廓线雷达、自动观测、探空、数值产品以及常规气象观测等资料,分析了2014年2月17—18日珠海三灶机场一次平流海雾过程的边界层温湿风三维演变特征及天气学成因。结果表明:边界层内暖湿平流输入、浅层辐合抬升、湍流加强、多层逆温结构以及夜间地面的辐射冷却有利于近地层饱和湿空气的凝结和逆温层的维持,是雾形成的主要物理机制;暖湿平流持续及湍流减弱或停歇是雾维持的原因;近地层偏北风干冷平流入侵并出现下沉气流及日间地面辐射增温使逆温层被破坏是雾消散的主要因素。     

环渤海近海岸雾产生的天气条件及边界层特征分析

利用渤海沿岸微波辐射计、风廓线雷达、四分量辐射仪和超声风速仪等多种观测反演资料,并结合常规站点气象资料,卫星云图,浮标气象水文观测和FNL（Final）再分析资料研究了2016年12月17~19日一次环渤海大雾个例产生的天气水文条件以及边界层垂直分层的辐射和湍流特征。研究发现:（1）此次大雾出现在大陆低压前部、入海高压后部的西南低空急流控制区域,与强急流相伴的暖湿平流输送为雾区提供了稳定的逆温和持续的水汽积累,非常有利于大雾天气的形成;（2）水汽通量的分布与低空急流的移动密切相关,近地面比湿的增速与低空急流的强度成正比;（3）由于低空急流的水汽输送增湿了环渤海低层大气,从而增强了大气辐射的衰减效应,导致雾形成前向下短波辐射逐渐减小,向下长波辐射不断增加,净辐射在大雾形成后趋近于零;（4）逆温有效抑制了湍流的发展,近地层湍流动能和摩擦速度微弱。     

Turbulence, Radiation and fog in Dutch Stable Boundary Layers

The effect of longwave radiation on the structure the clear stable boundary layer (SBL) is examined. Special emphasis is given to radiative cooling near the surface and the top of the boundary layer and its impact on the heat flux profile. Further, the formation, growth and dissipation of fog in the SBL are studied both from observations and from a one-dimensional ensemble averaged turbulence closure model. The model is compared with detailed observations that were made for both a shallow (about 30 m) radiation fog and a deep (about 200 m) fog layer at the 200-m tower at Cabauw in the Netherlands. The model describes adequately the most important mechanisms occurring during the fog evolution. In this study special attention is given to the parameterization of the vegetation, which is important for a good representation of the (minimum) air temperature. The influence of turbulence transport, longwave radiative cooling and gravitational droplet settling on the fog evolution is described. The study demonstrates the need for more accurate measurements of turbulence quantities, especially the master length scale, in a variety of SBLs.     

不同边界层参数化方案对江苏地区一次平流雾过程的模拟影响

边界层参数化方案的选取在平流雾的预报准确度上起着决定性的作用。本文利用WRF模式对2013年3月18~19日发生在江苏地区的一次平流雾过程进行数值模拟试验,对耦合不同闭合方式边界层参数化方案的试验结果与实测气象数据进行对比分析,评估了他们对此次平流雾的模拟效果,探讨了边界层高度对此次平流雾的生成和发展的影响。研究结果表明:（1）耦合不同边界层方案的WRF模式对地面气象要素的模拟结果均呈现气温偏低、湿度和风速偏大的特征。（2）QNSE方案对气温的模拟能力最强;ACM2方案对相对湿度的模拟性能最好;YSU方案对风速的模拟效果最佳。不同边界层方案的模拟结果在垂直方向上的差别主要表现在低空相对湿度上:QNSE方案预报的湿度更大。（3）综合TS（Threat Score）和BS（Bias Score）两个评分指标来看,ACM2方案对雾区分布的模拟效果最好。三个边界层方案对此次平流雾的模拟结果在江苏沿海站点的预报评分较高,在距海较远站点的预报评分表现较差。YSU方案对东南沿海地区的雾区预报评分较高;QNSE方案对长江沿江区域的雾区预报评分较高;ACM2方案对沿海地区、尤其对沿海北部地区的有较好的预报效果。（4）QNSE方案对此次平流雾的生成时间、出现地点预报比较准确。（5）平流雾的生成与发展阶段模拟雾区覆盖范围与边界层高度关系十分紧密,适当强度的湍流混合作用有助于平流雾在地面的生成与发展;但是过强的湍流混合作用会导致大雾过早的消散。     

一次深厚浓雾过程的边界层特征和生消物理机制

2007年12月13-14日,南京出现一次厚度达600 m、持续近14 h的浓雾过程,其中强浓雾阶段维持4 h.通过系留气球边界层探测系统、涡动协方差测量系统、雾滴尺度分布和自动气象站等外场试验资料分析了此次深厚浓雾过程的边界层结构特征和生消物理机制.结果表明,此次雾过程首先由地面辐射冷却形成贴地雾层,而后因低空平流冷却形成低云.在发展阶段,伴随低云不断下伸,贴地雾层不断抬升.在贴地雾层受到地面弱冷空气平流降温影响下,雾中微物理过程迅速发展,雾滴数密度、含水量、平均直径、最大直径等微物理参数在15 min内跃增,雾体爆发性升高,最终导致地面雾和低云上下贯通形成深厚雾层,地面能见度骤降至15 m以下.雾体爆发性增强时,地面垂直动量通量和向下长波辐射通量密度增大,净辐射趋于零.整个雾过程中,由于贴地层持续弱冷平流降温和上层雾阻碍了下层雾的辐射降温,二者的共同作用使贴地强逆温结构始终维持.     

A CASE STUDY OF NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF SEA FOG ON THE SOUTHERN CHINA COAST

This study uses numerical simulations to examine a case of sea fog that was observed from 20 to 22 March2011 on the southern China coast. The observation dataset includes observatory data, cloud-top temperature from MODIS, GPS sonde, and data from the Integrated Observation Platform for Marine Meteorology(IOPMM). The simulations are based on the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF) model with four distinct parameter settings.Both the observations and simulations focus on the characteristics of the fog extent, boundary layer structure, and meteorological elements near the air-sea interface. Our main results are as follows:(1) The extent of mesoscale sea fog can be well simulated when the sea surface temperature has at least 0.5 ×0.5 horizontal resolution.(2) To accurately model the vertical structure of the sea fog, particularly the surface-based inversion, vertical levels must be added in the boundary layer.(3) When these model conditions are met, the simulations faithfully reproduce the measured downward shortwave radiation, downward longwave radiation, and surface sensible heat flux during the sea fog period.     

华北平原一次持续性大雾过程的动力和热力特征

利用台站加密观测资料和NCEP/NCAR再分析资料对2004年11月29日—12月3日华北平原一次罕见的持续性大雾天气过程进行了研究, 通过对本次过程动力和热力特征的深入分析, 揭示了其成因和维持机制。结果表明:对流层中低层暖性高压脊及地面变性冷高压的稳定维持为持续性大雾过程提供了良好的背景条件; 地表净辐射引起的近地层冷却是大雾的触发和加强机制; 中低空下沉气流的存在有助于近地层的弱风条件和稳定层结的建立; 低层暖平流的输入和边界层的浅层抬升有利于大雾的长时间维持; 伴随负温度平流南下的偏北风的爆发是使大雾消散的动力因子。     

2004年冬季华北平原持续大雾天气的诊断分析

利用GTS1型数字式探空仪探测的资料、NCEP 1°×1°的6小时资料和常规观测资料,对2004年冬季华北平原历史上少见的持续大雾天气进行了天气动力学诊断分析。结果表明:华北平原近地面气层900hPa以下的负涡度平流、冷温度平流和弱辐合上升运动引起该层气温下降,900-500hPa的正涡度平流、暖温度平流和辐散下沉运动造成该层气温升高,在上升和下沉运动区的界面层中形成逆温层,逆温层的高度和强度影响雾的形成和状况。夜间辐射热力强迫作用和950hPa以下的微风是大雾形成的动力因子。大雾边界层中存在的水汽饱和层是在特定的环流形势下华北平原低空盛行东和东南向岸气流,将北部海面的水汽向西向北平流到冷近地面气层中的结果。     

上海一次连续大雾过程的成因分析

利用上海市遥测能见度数据、常规气象资料和T213、GFS分析资料以及GPS-PWV资料,分析了2008年1月5-11日发生在上海地区的一次连续大雾天气过程.分析表明当有天气尺度西风槽频繁活动、槽前暖湿气流不断向气层输入暖湿空气,如再遇特定暖水面或暖海面从近地面向气层输送暖湿气流时,在晴天和微风的早晨极易形成辐射雾;当东、黄海暖湿空气从近地面流向冷水面或冷陆面,如再遇江南低空偏南暖湿气流辐合聚积时,极易形成平流雾.雾区登陆距离与东风气流强弱有关,东风气流越强,雾区西进距离越长.在平流雾期间,0～300 m平均相对湿度的高湿区与雾区吻合.当绝对湿度小于3 g/kg时不会有大雾发生,绝对湿度在9～1 5 g/kg和GPS-PWV值在15 mm左右时,在合适的大气条件下容易形成大雾.     

春季黄海海雾WRF参数化方案敏感性研究

利用2005—2011年10次春季黄海海雾个例开展WRF模式参数化方案敏感性研究。结果表明:边界层方案对WRF模式雾区模拟结果起决定作用,而微物理方案影响较小,它主要影响海雾浓度和高度。边界层与微物理方案的最佳组合为YSU与Lin方案,最差为Mellor-Yamada与WSM5方案;Mellor-Yamada和QNSE方案模拟的近海面湍流过强,导致边界层过高,不利于海雾的发展与维持;而MYNN与YSU方案刻画的湍流强度与边界层高度合适,有利于海雾发展与维持。MYNN方案虽与YSU方案相当,但在大多数海雾个例中,后者明显优于前者,而在有些个例中却刚好相反。因此对于某一具体海雾个例而言,所用边界层方案仍需在它们之中选择最优者。这些信息可为黄海海雾WRF模式边界层与微物理方案的选择与改进提供参考。     

海雾的准周期振荡特征

根据南海北部海雾外场观测获取的高分辨率液态含水量、长波辐射通量数据,采用小波分析方法分析了2008年3月16—17日和18—19日两次海雾中的液态水含量、净长波辐射通量的变化特征,讨论南海北部海雾发展和维持的冷却机制。结果显示:(1)无论在有云或无云条件下,海雾都可发展和维持;但前者的液态含水量明显小于后者,而风速大于后者;(2)在地面海雾的生成之前和生成初期,净辐射通量都存在准周期振荡现象,无论无云/有云,地面海雾液态水的大幅度发展的阶段都存在含水量的准周期振荡现象;(3)含水量的准周期振荡现象与振荡发生时段的长波辐射通量关系不大,而主要通过湍流对液态水的混合作用与高空海雾液态水大量生成阶段的雾顶长波辐射间接相关。(4)海雾的生成都与雾顶长波辐射冷却密切相关,但发展和维持可通过不同的冷却机制,既可通过海气间湍流热量输送和辐射传输,也可通过雾顶长波辐射冷却。     

Analysis of Coastal Fog from a Ship During the C-FOG Campaign

This work presents ship-based measurements of fog off St John’s, Newfoundland, on 13 September 2018 during the Coastal Fog field campaign. The measurements included cloud-particle spectra, cloud-base height and aerosol backscatter, radiation, turbulence, visibility, and sea-surface temperature. Radiosonde soundings were made at intervals of less than 2 h. Fog occurred in two episodes during the passage of an eastward-moving synoptic low-pressure system. The boundary-layer structure during the first fog episode consisted of three layers, separated by two saturated temperature inversions, and capped by a subsidence inversion. The lowest layer was fog, and the upper layers were cloud. The second fog episode consisted of one well-mixed fog layer capped by a subsidence inversion. Low wind speeds and stable stratification maintained low surface-layer turbulence during fog. Droplet size distributions had typical bimodal distributions. The visibility correlated with the droplet number concentration and liquid water content. The air temperature was higher than the sea-surface temperature for the first 30 min of the first fog episode but was lower than the sea for the remainder of all fog. The sensible heat flux was upward, from sea to air, for the first 62% of the first fog episode and then reversed to downward, from air to sea, for the remainder of the first fog episode and the second fog episode. The counter-gradient heat fluxes observed (i.e., opposite to what is expected from the instantaneous air–sea temperature difference) appear to be related to turbulence, entrainment, and stratification in the fog layer that overwhelmed the influence of the air–sea temperature difference. While the synoptic-scale dynamics preconditioned the area for fog formation, the final step of fog appearance in this case was nuanced by stratification–turbulence interactions, local advective processes, and microphysical environment.

     

一次大雾形成过程的数值模拟分析

利用非静力中尺度模式MM5V3对2009年11月30日到12月1日天津武清地区的一次大雾天气过程进行了数值模拟研究,这次大雾过程主要分布在天津、河北、山东地区,天津市武清县位于大雾的边缘位置.此次雾过程可以分为3个阶段.11月30日的17:00(北京时间,下同)至12月1日00:00是雾的形成阶段,12月1日00:00出现雾,00:00至09:00是雾的发展阶段,09:00之后是雾的消散阶段.模拟研究表明长波辐射降温使得温度下降并导致逆温层出现,同时由于暖湿气流输送,观测点处具有充足的水汽供应,促使了大雾的形成;在雾形成之后,逆温层的维持、持续的长波辐射降温有利于雾的不断发展;而后期辐散下沉运动明显,水汽不断向外辐散,使得雾逐渐消散.湍流对雾的影响是向上和向四周传输水汽,使得雾范围扩大,但如果太强,又会使得雾很快消散.     

南京冬季平流雾的生消机制及边界层结构观测分析

利用系留飞艇边界层要素探测系统等设备,对2006年12月24q7日发生在南京地区的雾日边界层结构进行了综合探测,深入研究了这次平流雾的生消机制及边界层结构。结果表明：此次雾属于比较典型的平流雾,生成和维持主要决定于暖湿气流和系统性下沉运动,消散主要是干冷空气南下造成的;雾项下降阶段出现了双层结构,中层逆温是逆温主层,属于下沉逆温及平流逆温,主逆温层强中心始终位于雾顶附近或处于雾顶之下;风速随高度呈现多峰分布,中层急流与强度较弱的中上层和上层急流合并后,又与下层急流出现了一强一弱的波动;在风速较小时,风场趋于均匀化;雾消散时,低层风场趋于线性化;雾主要的水汽来源是暖湿气流;比湿场与风场有较好的时空分布对应性,主逆温层强中心也是逆湿强中心,风场与温度场共同主导了比湿场的时空分布。     

‘Evolution of a Storm-driven Cloudy Boundary Layer in the Arctic’

To investigate the processes of development and maintenance of low-level clouds during major synoptic events, the cloudy boundary layer under stormy conditions during the summertime Arctic has been studied using observations from the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) experiment and large-eddy simulations (LES). On 29 July 1998, a stable Arctic cloudy boundary-layer event was observed after the passage of a synoptic low pressure system. The local dynamic and thermodynamic structure of the boundary layer was determined from aircraft measurements including the analysis of turbulence, cloud microphysics and radiative properties. After the upper cloud layer advected over the existing cloud layer, the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) budget indicated that the cloud layer below 200 m was maintained predominantly by shear production. Observations of longwave radiation showed that cloud-top cooling at the lower cloud top has been suppressed by radiative effects of the upper cloud layer. Our LES results demonstrate the importance of the combination of shear mixing near the surface and radiative cooling at the cloud top in the storm-driven cloudy boundary layer. Once the low-level cloud reaches a certain height, depending on the amount of cloud-top cooling, the two sources of TKE production begin to separate in space under continuous stormy conditions, suggesting one possible mechanism for the cloud layering. The sensitivity tests suggest that the storm-driven cloudy boundary layer is possibly switched to the shear-driven system due to the advection of upper clouds or to the buoyantly driven system due to the lack of wind shear. A comparison is made of this storm-driven boundary layer with the buoyantly driven boundary layer previously described in the literature.     

华北一次浓雾过程爆发性增强的微物理特征

基于华北雾-霾综合观测试验资料,分析了2011年12月4日河北涿州一次浓雾过程爆发性增强的微物理特征及形成机理。结果表明:此次浓雾过程除具有均压场、地面辐射降温、逆温层、静稳天气等特征外,还具有雾微物理过程出现爆发性增强的特征,10 min内,小雾滴浓度显著增加,含水量增大了3个量级,雾滴谱由15 μm拓宽到35 μm,能见度由500 m骤降至70 m。夜间地面长波辐射冷却效应导致近地层雾的形成,而近地层雾的形成反过来快速地增强了地面长波辐射冷却效应,促使大量小雾滴的形成和碰并过程的产生,这是一种正反馈效应;大量雾滴形成释放的潜热,促使雾体抬升和向下长波辐射增强,又使地面长波辐射冷却效应减弱,产生负反馈效应。相对于南京辐射雾过程,此次涿州浓雾的小雾滴粒子数浓度高,液态水含量明显偏小,这与华北高浓度气溶胶和弱水汽输送有关。