Identifying Aquifer Type in Fractured Rock Aquifers using Harmonic Analysis

Determining aquifer type, unconfined, semi‐confined, or confined, by drilling or performing pumping tests has inherent problems (i.e., cost and complex field issues) while sometimes yielding inconclusive results. An improved method to cost‐effectively determine aquifer type would be beneficial for hydraulic mapping of complex aquifer systems like fractured rock aquifers. Earth tides are known to influence water levels in wells penetrating confined aquifers or unconfined thick, low‐porosity aquifers. Water‐level fluctuations in wells tapping confined and unconfined aquifers are also influenced by changes in barometric pressure. Harmonic analyses of water‐level fluctuations of a thick (～1000 m) carbonate aquifer located in south‐central Oklahoma (Arbuckle‐Simpson aquifer) were utilized in nine wells to identify aquifer type by evaluating the influence of earth tides and barometric‐pressure variations using signal identification. On the basis of the results, portions of the aquifer responded hydraulically as each type of aquifer even though there was no significant variation in lithostratigraphy. The aquifer type was depth dependent with confined conditions becoming more prevalent with depth. The results demonstrate that harmonic analysis is an accurate and low‐cost method to determine aquifer type.     

A first estimate of ground water ages for the deep aquifer of the Kathmandu Basin, Nepal, using the radioisotope chlorine-36

The Kathmandu Basin in Nepal contains up to 550 m of Pliocene-Quaternary fluvio-lacustrine sediments which have formed a dual aquifer system. The unconfined sand and gravel aquifer is separated by a clay aquitard, up to 200 m thick, from the deeper, confined aquifer, comprised of Pliocene sand and gravel beds, intercalated with clay, peat, and lignite. The confined aquifer currently provides an important water supply to the central urban area but there are increasing concerns about its sustainability due to overexploitation. A limited number of determinations of the radioisotope 36Cl have been made on bore waters in the basin, allowing us to postulate on the age of ground water in the deeper, confined aquifer. Ground water evolution scenarios based on radioisotope decay, gradual dissolution of formational salts as the ground waters move downgradient, and flow velocity estimations produce comparable ground water ages for the deep waters, ranging from 200,000 to 400,000 years. From these ages, we deduce a mean ground water flow velocity of only 45 mm/year from recharge in the northeast to the main extraction region 15 km to the southwest. We thus estimate current recharge at about 5 to 15 mm/year, contributing 40,000 to 1.2 million m3/year to the ground water system. Current ground water extraction is estimated to be 20 times this amount. The low specific discharge confirms that the resource is being mined, and, based on current projections, reserves will be used up within 100 years.     

Study of the Santa Catarina aquifer system (Mexico Basin) using magnetotelluric soundings

A tensor magnetotelluric test survey was carried out in the region of Santa Catarina, located in the Chalco sub-basin of the Mexico Basin. The objective was to define the stratification at depth with an emphasis on the geometry of the main aquifer of that region which is partially known from DC resistivity soundings and drilling. High-quality magnetotelluric soundings could be recorded in the immediate vicinity of large urban zones because the sub-surface is very conductive. Interpretation shows that the solid bedrock is located at a depth of at least 800 m to the south and 1300 m to the north; it could, however, be much deeper. Using complementary DC resistivity sounding and well-logging data, three main layers have been defined overlying the bedrock. These layers are, from surface to bottom, an unsaturated zone of sand, volcanic ash and clay about 10 m thick, followed by a very conductive (1.5 ohm·m) 200 m thick layer of sand and ash with intercalated clay, saturated with highly mineralized water, and finally a zone with resistivity increasing gradually to 60 ohm·m. The investigated deep aquifer constitutes most of this third layer. It consists of a sequence of sand, gravel, pyroclastites and mainly fractured basalts. MT resistivity soundings and magnetic transfer functions also indicate that a shallow resistive structure is dipping, from the northwest, into the lacustrine deposits of the basin. This geologic feature is likely to be highly permeable fractured basaltic flows, which provide a channel by which water contaminated by the Santa Catarina landfill may leak into the basin.     

Application of Electromagnetic Logging to Contamination Investigations in Glacial Sand-and-Gravel Aquifers

Electromagnetic (EM) logging provides an efficient method for high-resolution, vertical delineation of electrically conductive contamination in glacial sand-and-gravel aquifers. LM. gamma, and lithologic logs and specific conductance data from sand-and-gravel aquifers at five sites in the northeastern United States were analyzed to define the relation of KM conductivity to aquifer lithology and water quality. Municipal waste disposal, septic waste discharge, or highway deicing salt application at these sites has caused contaminant plumes in which the dissolved solids concentration and specific conductance of ground water exceed background levels by as much as 10 to 20 limes.
The major hydrogeologic factors that affected KM log response at the five sites were the dissolved solids concentration of the ground water and the silt and clay content in the aquifer. KM conductivity of sand and gravel with uncontaminated water ranged from less than 5 to about 10 millisiemens per meter (mS/m); that of silt and clay zones ranged from about 15 to 45 mS/m: and that of the more highly contaminated zones in sand and gravel ranged from about 10 to more than 80 mS/m. Specific conductance of water samples from screened intervals in sand and gravel at selected monitoring well installations was significantly correlated with KM conductivity.
CM logging can be used in glacial sand-and-gravel aquifer investigations to (1) determine optimum depths for the placement of monitoring well screens: (2) provide a nearly continuous vertical profile of specific conductance to complement depth-specific water quality samples; and (3) identify temporal changes in water quality through sequential logging. Detailed lithologic or gamma logs, preferably both, need to be collected along with the F.M logs to define zones in which elevated EM conductivity is caused by the presence of sill and clay beds rather than contamination.     

Terrestrial‐originated submarine groundwater discharge through deep multilayered aquifer systems beneath the seafloor

A large quantity of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) of about 1000 m³ day^?1 m^?1 of the 600‐km‐long shoreline of South Atlantic Bight has been estimated by Moore (Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 2010b, 24, GB4005, doi: 10.1029/2009GB003747 ). However, there is great uncertainty in estimating the percentage of net, land‐originated groundwater recharge of SGD. Moreover, most previous studies considered the homogeneous case for the coastal superficial aquifers. Here, we investigated the terrestrial‐originated SGD through a multilayered submarine aquifer system, which comprises two confined aquifers and two semi‐permeable layers. The inland recharge includes a constant part representing the annual average and a periodical part representing its seasonal variation. An analytical solution was derived and used to analyse the distributions of the terrestrial‐originated SGD from the multilayered aquifers along the Winyah Bay transect, South Atlantic Bight. It is found that the width of the zone of SGD from the upper aquifer ranges from ~0.8 to ~8.0 km depending on the leakance of the seabed semi‐permeable layer. A head of the upper aquifer at a coastline 1.0 m higher than the mean sea level will cause a SGD of 1.82– 18.3 m³ day^?1 m^?1 from that aquifer as the seabed semi‐permeable layer's leakance varies from 0.001 to 0.1 day^?1, providing considerable possibility for considerable land‐originated SGD. Seasonal terrestrial‐originated SGD variations predicted by the analytical model provide consistent explanation of the seasonal variation of ²²⁶Ra observed by Moore (Journal of Geophysics, 2007, 112, C10013, doi: 10.1029/2007JC004199 ). The contribution of the lower aquifer to SGD is only 1.2–12% of that of the upper aquifer. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Geophysical techniques to aquifer locating and monitoring for industrial zones in North Hanoi, Vietnam

Geophysical methods were applied for hydrogeological targets in many countries including Vietnam. This paper presents results of using complex geophysical techniques as well as 2D electrical resistivity imaging (ERI), vertical electrical sounding (VES), very low frequency (VLF), and seismic refraction for geological structure investigation for locating the aquifers and assessing the hydrogeological conditions for groundwater potential in industrial zones of North Hanoi, Vietnam. The locations of two aquifers are determined by their depth and thickness on the basis of resistivity and seismic velocity values which were proved by stratifications of three boreholes to 40–60 m of depth on the study area. There are connections from surface water to shallow aquifer by hydraulic windows, as follows from VLF data. The deeper aquifer can be considered as a potential groundwater supply, but the water level is descending in time, as shown by hydrological monitoring. However, with careful use and by reducing sources of pollution, groundwater can continue to be an important natural resource for future.     

Multi‐depth monitoring of electrical conductivity and temperature of groundwater at a multilayered coastal aquifer: Jeju Island,Korea

To supplement conventional geophysical log data, this study presents temporal variations in electrical conductivity (EC) and temperature with depth in a multilayered coastal aquifer, on the eastern part of Jeju Island, Korea. One‐month time‐series data obtained at eight points from a multi‐depth monitoring system showed that semidiurnal and semimonthly tidal variations induced dynamic fluctuations in EC and temperature. At some depths, EC ranged from 1483 to 26 822 µS cm^?1, while some points showed no significant variations. The results of EC log and time‐series data revealed that a sharp fresh‐saltwater interface occurred at low tide, but the diffusion zone broadened to 20 m at high tide. EC, temperature, and tide level data were used for the cross‐correlation analysis. The response time of EC and temperature to tide appears to range from less than 30 min to 11 h. Using end‐member mixing analysis (EMMA), the fraction of variations of chloride concentration in the multilayered aquifer was explained, and a conceptual model was developed which subdivided the coastal aquifer into four vertical zones. The percentage of water derived from seawater varied from 2 to 48 at specific depth, owing to tidal fluctuations. Continuous observations of EC and temperature at multiple depths are powerful tools for quantifying the transport of saline water by tidal variations in multilayered coastal aquifers. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Imaging of groundwater resources in glacial deposits using high-resolution reflection seismics, Sweden

Two high-resolution reflection seismic profiles were acquired in the Heby area of eastern Sweden over glacial deposits for the purpose of mapping groundwater resources. The majority of shot points were located in clay resulting in good quality data along most of the profiles. On stacked and migrated sections, the uppermost clay is about 20 m thick and is characterized by its subhorizontal reflectivity. Sand/gravel deposits below it contain more dipping interfaces and have a chaotic reflectivity pattern. Depth to bedrock is interpreted to be 90 and 65 m on the respective profiles and occurs in about a 100-m-wide trough on both profiles. Reflections from the tops of sandy gravel zones generally have higher amplitudes. Clear reflections from a thin silt layer (20 cm thick) at about 10-m depth are observed on one of the profiles. Elastic finite difference modeling and the observation of this reflection in shot gathers show that the reflection is not an artifact of the acquisition nor the processing. The modeling also shows that there is no marked low-velocity waveguide in the near surface, but that an effective low Q zone may be present. Comparison with refraction profiling on the other profile shows that there is better agreement between the reflection seismic results and penetration tests than the refraction results with these tests. Both profiles allow the thickness of the overlying clay layers to be determined, as well as the thickness of the underlying sand/gravel deposits. This is important for estimating the amount of groundwater resources in an area.     

The influence of sea water velocity variation on seismic traveltimes, ray paths, and amplitude

The main factors affecting seismic exploration is the propagation velocity of seismic waves in the medium. In the past, during marine seismic data processing, the propagation velocity of sea water was generally taken as a constant 1500 m/s. However, for deep water exploration, the sound velocity varies with the season, time, location, water depth, ocean currents, and etc.. It also results in a layered velocity distribution, so there is a difference of seismic traveltime, ray paths, and amplitude, which affect the migration imaging results if sea water propagation velocity is still taken as constant for the propagation wavefield. In this paper, we will start from an empirical equation of seismic wave velocity in seawater with changes of temperature, salinity, and depth, consider the variation of their values, build a seawater velocity model, and quantitatively analyze the impact of seawater velocity variation on seismic traveltime, ray paths, and amplitude in the seawater velocity model.     

井间地震技术在松南油气开发中的初步应用研究

为了研究松南地区陆相砂泥岩薄互层储层岩石物性横向变化、微构造等对油气聚集的影响和探索利用高分辨率井间地震技术直接指示油气分布的可能性,开展了井间地震及地面小三维地震、VSP、测井等立体地震观测．使用了自行研制的井中炸药震源和常规地震记录仪器．采用层析成像方法、反射资料叠前偏移成像方法等对采集到的资料进行研究,得到了不同分辨率的地下构造和岩石物性信息,展示出不同方法技术在分辨薄储层能力上的差异．高分辨率的井间地震成果较好地实现了井间地层对比,查清了两井间储层横向变化和油气分布情况．层析速度与构造信息等的综合应用解释了两井油气产能差异的原因,建立了油气地质模型．所得成果显示出井间地震技术在油气开发中的潜力．     

玉溪盆地浅层土层颗粒特征与剪切波速的关系研究

以玉溪盆地16个钻孔的柱状图和波速数据为基础,统计分析了具有不同颗粒特征的土层埋深与剪切波速之间的关系,给出了玉溪盆地内角砾、砾石、圆砾、砾砂、细砂和淤泥质黏土等土层在80 m深度范围内深度与剪切波速的经验关系.通过分析不同颗粒大小、不同磨圆程度土层剪切波速特征,认为土层的波速特征与其形成时所处的沉积环境有一定的关系,并以玉溪盆地浅层土层为例,给出了一种根据具有明显颗粒特征土层估算未测波速钻孔的等效剪切波速的方法.      

汶川Ms8.0级大地震中成都地区液化特征研究

汶川大地震中成都地区液化及其震害现象较为显著.通过现场调查和工程地质资料分析,成都地区的液化特点为:液化带主要集中都江堰市液化在烈度Ⅵ、Ⅶ、Ⅷ、X和X度区均有出现,但Ⅶ度区最为集中液化喷水高度多在1-3m之间,最高一处超过10m液化场地喷出物涵盖了多种土类,约67％为粉细砂,且有卵砾石,约占11％液化带普遍伴随地裂缝,...     

2013年芦山地震震源区地壳介质地震波速变化的特征分析

为探究芦山M7.0级地震后5年多来,震源区龙门山断裂带西南段介质波速的变化规律,本文基于2012年4月至2018年4月共6年的连续波形数据,运用移动窗互谱与频域偏振等分析方法,结合背景噪声源的特性,对不同深度范围内的相对波速变化以及震后的恢复过程与机制进行了研究.获得的主要认识包括：（1）年尺度而言,震源区周期为1~20 s的背景噪声场相对稳定,但成分复杂、2~10 s频带内至少存在2个能量相对稳定的噪声源;不同周期噪声的能量,在月变与季节性上的变化特征差异明显.（2）获得了长时间尺度、不同频带内介质相对波速的背景变化水平,1~2 s、2~4 s的波动幅度（约为±0.04%）与季节性变化规律强于4~10 s、10~20 s的,结合与降雨量相关的地下水位模型能很好地解释其变化规律.（3）震源区的同震波速降低现象清晰,降幅约为0.08%~0.1%;空间上,波速下降最为显著的区域主要集中在龙门山断裂带两侧约70 km范围内,其中四川盆地一侧平均约为0.1%,略高于青藏高原（0.08%）一侧;在断裂带内的降速不显著.对不同子频带进行测量的结果显示,震后除10~20 s外,其余3个子频带的相对波速在震后较短时间内（约20天左右）均出现较大幅度的波速降低现象,其中4~10 s的平均降速最大（约为0.08%）,分析认为主震及大量余震的松弛效应是引起介质波速下降的主要原因.（4）震后大约1年左右,波速变化基本恢复到震前水平,且至2018年4月前未观察到大幅的波速变化现象,总体上各频带内的结果均沿零线小幅波动.     

A three-dimensional model of the Baltic Shield crust from data of deep seismic studies

A 3-D velocity structure of the crust has been constructed for almost the entire Baltic Shield area from data of extensive deep seismic studies on the shield. The construction involved a revision of all primary data (record sections and observed traveltime curves) obtained in this region over 50 years of research. Comparative analysis of wave fields revealed that three reference reflectors traceable throughout the shield area are K1 (a boundary velocity of 6.4–6.5 km/s), K2 (～6.8 km/s), and the mantle surface M (8.0–8.2 km/s). The resulting 3-D velocity structure is represented in the form of structural maps of these surfaces and a velocity distribution scheme in the upper crust. Using this general basic model, seismic cross sections are constructed by means of mathematical modeling along all profiles. They showed that, in addition to the main layers and reflectors above the K1 boundary, a lower velocity layer is traceable almost everywhere and the majority of deep faults flatten out toward this layer. On the whole, lateral variations in the velocity structure of the crust are small up to a depth of 40 km. The variations are most significant in the M topography: its average depth being 40–45 km, two deep (down to 50–60 km) depressions exist in southern Finland and the Baltic region. The origin of this depression filled with high velocity (7.2–7.4 km/s) rocks remains unclear.     

Geoelectrical exploration for groundwater in Al Maha Forest,Ain Jouhra,Morocco

An area of about 30 km² located in Ain Jouhra, south of Rabat, Morocco, was the subject of a geoelectric resistivity investigation. The main goal of the investigation was the assessment of the groundwater potential of the uppermost aquifer. The aquifer conditions such as depth, thickness and boundaries were also investigated. The obtained apparent resistivity curves were first analysed qualitatively and classified using simple curve shapes. Thereafter, the data were converted to resistivity and thickness pairs semi‐quantitatively by means of master curves and then quantitatively by computer modelling using ATO and Winsev software (Zohdy, 1989; Zohdy and Bisdrof, 1989). Lithological control from the available single well with a stratigraphic log aided in the correlation of the resistivity values to different rock units. Three different AB‐spacing iso‐resistivity maps, an isopach map of the main groundwater‐bearing horizon, the depth to the aquifer substratum map and five geoelectric cross‐sections were constructed. The interpretation of these soundings indicates the presence of an unconfined to semi‐confined sandy aquifer with relatively important extent and varying thickness. The maximal thickness of the aquifer is recorded in the central part of the investigated area and is thinning southwards to pinch out farther to the south. Geophysical as well as field data indicate a hydraulic connection between the upper and deeper aquifers. Indeed, the two aquifers are separated from each other by a marly substratum that is indicated throughout the area by the lowest values of the interpreted true resistivity. The value of this resistivity varies laterally, most likely due to the lateral variation in the shale‐to‐sand ratio. The altitude of the substratum decreases towards the north, and increases southwards. Regarding the availability of the groundwater in the study area, zones with high potential are theoretically expected to occur in the central part where the transversal resistance is greatest. However, sufficient water supply and high flow rates from wells intended to produce restrictively from the most upper aquifer are not likely to exist. This conclusion, which seems to be very pessimistic, is evidenced from two real field and experimental observations. The first is the rapid fall of the level of Gharnoug lake, despite the ongoing feeding by three wells. Hence, the amount of water level drop cannot be accounted for by the evaporation alone. That means that the deeper aquifer is continuously draining the upper aquifer at a high flow rate. Very low rates are recorded in all the wells that penetrated only the upper aquifer, the exception being the well that reached deeper into the lower aquifer. The flow rate in this lower aquifer measured 18 litre s^?1. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Groundwater investigation on sand dunes area in southern part of Vietnam by magnetic resonance sounding

In the last five years, magnetic resonance sounding (MRS), as a non-invasive geophysical method, has emerged as a new technique for ground water investigation in Vietnam. In this paper, we present the general theoretical basis of this method together with acquisition, processing, and interpretation of the MRS data. We show a case study of MRS surveys in sand dunes area in order to characterize aquifers situated in the southern part of Vietnam. From the interpretation of MRS soundings we delimited an aquifer layer in the subsurface with strong lateral variations for which we determined the depth at 44 m and water content between 3% and 9.5%. The longitudinal relaxation constant T*₁ is about 250 m s, while the transverse relaxation T*₂ is between 150–200 m s. That indicates fine to medium grain size and thus low to medium hydraulic permeability. These results are confirmed by the observations from the well LK1 between 45 to 70 m. The results of other MRS measurements showed the presence of a low water bearing aquifer and were confirmed by the observations in two other wells.     

A Tracer Test for Detecting Cross Contamination Along a Monitoring Well Column

A tracer test was used to evaluate whether cross contamination exists along a monitoring well completed through a shallow ground water system in fractured clay and screened in a sand and gravel aquifer. The fractured clay is separated from the sand and gravel deposit by a layer of highly plastic unfractured clay. A natural vertical downward hydraulic gradient of approximately 0.5 exists between the shallow system and the sand and gravel aquifer. Ground water contamination was detected in an adjacent monitoring well screened in the fractured clay and in the monitoring well screened in the sand and gravel deposit. No ground water contamination was apparent in an intermediate well screened in the unfractured clay layer. A tracer of sodium bromide was injected into a shallow boring near the monitoring wells. The tracer was detected in the monitoring well in the sand and gravel aquifer after three to seven days. The bromide concentration continued to increase in this well with time while the concentration in the shallow boring declined. This trend of tracer concentration indicates the tracer has in fact migrated downward and possibly traveled along the well column.     

Two-dimensional stochastic analysis of flow in leaky confined aquifers subject to spatial and periodic leakage

This paper addresses the issue of flow in heterogeneous leaky confined aquifers subject to leakage. The leakage into the confined aquifer is driven by spatial and periodic fluctuations of water table in an overlying phreatic aquifer. The introduction of leakage leads to non-uniformity in the mean head gradient and results in nonstationarity in hydraulic head and velocity fields. Therefore, a nonstationary spectral approach based on Fourier–Stieltjes representations for the perturbed quantities is adopted to account for the spatial variability of nonstationary head fields. Closed-form expressions for the variances of hydraulic head and specific discharge are developed in terms of statistical properties of hydraulic parameters. The results indicate that the spatiotemporal variations in leakage leads to enhanced variability of the hydraulic head and of the specific discharge, which increase with distance from any arbitrary reference point. The coefficient of leakage and the spatial structure of log transmissivity field and of the amplitude of water table fluctuation are critical in quantifying the variability of the hydraulic head and of the specific discharge.     

A LINEAR MODEL FOR VELOCITY ANOMALIES*

Variations of seismic interval velocities within the cable length cause anomalies in the stacking velocity analyses. Utilizing the approximation of rectilinear ray propagation, i.e. supposing that the velocity changes cause time delays only, it is shown that the stacking velocity anomalies are linearly related to the interval velocity variations. In particular, the stacking velocity anomaly is calculated when the interval velocity of an intermediate layer undergoes a stepwise variation. The amplitude of the anomaly increases with the ratio between horizon depth and cable length. From the forward model, a program for the inversion is derived in order to identify lateral changes of interval velocities from unsmoothed stacking velocity analyses. Some examples of the application of this technique to synthetic and real data are presented.