海岸泥质风暴沉积物研究现状与展望

从前寒武纪至今,各年代地层中普遍存在风暴沉积物,它们记录了地史时期曾经发生的极端气象事件。古风暴沉积物研究被认为能在预测未来极端气象事件演变趋势方面提供关键的长时间尺度信息,而准确识别风暴沉积物是这项研究的重要基础。在先前的研究中,学者们主要关注相对容易识别的砂质风暴沉积物、碳酸盐（钙质）风暴沉积物、风暴砾石与巨砾以及风暴贝壳层,而对较难识别的泥质风暴沉积物缺乏深入研究。近年来,国内外研究人员在海岸泥质风暴沉积物的判识方法和指标、沉积过程以及古风暴历史重建等方面取得了不少重要进展。这对于完善对风暴沉积记录类型的认识以及进行高分辨率的古风暴活动历史重建十分重要。为此,着重回顾了近年来有关海岸泥质风暴沉积物判识方法体系的研究进展,发现综合运用元素地球化学、同位素地球化学和有机地球化学的敏感指标是准确识别泥质风暴沉积物的关键,但仍需深入探究泥质风暴沉积物地球化学判识指标与风暴沉积动力过程的响应机理,建议优先关注不同沉积环境泥质风暴沉积物的系统性对比研究、野外原位观测及室内沉积模拟,并强化跨学科交叉合作。     

海南岛东南部海岸砂丘风暴冲越沉积记录

通过海南岛东南部海岸详细的古风暴学考察,在尖岭海岸发现了含有风暴冲越沉积物的海岸沙丘剖面,分别命名为JL-1和JL-2剖面,试图从海岸沙丘沉积记录中提取历史上的风暴事件信息。沉积物粒度、磁化率等参数的指标分析表明,这两个剖面含有典型的风暴冲越沉积物,利用放射性核素AMS14C测年、OSL测年分析,并结合历史文献记载,确定这些风暴沉积层是多次台风作用的产物,其形成机制与风暴浪越过海岸沙丘的堆积有关,风暴流越过沙丘顶部后不能回流,导致风暴流携带的沉积物迅速沉积。此外,依据Stockdon经验公式计算结果,该地点沉积记录所代表的最大风暴事件相当于100到200年一遇的重现期。研究表明,该处海岸沙丘冲越沉积含有南海台风强度与重现期的重要信息。     

风暴沉积,风暴岩的研究现状

本文是在阅读大量国内外最新有关古代和现代风暴沉积及风暴作用(包括现代台风作用)的论文(资料)和著作的基础上,运用现代沉积学理论及现代气象学与气候学理论,就以下几个方面作了总结和分析评述:1.有关概念:2.现代风暴沉积研究:3.古代风暴沉积研究:动力地层学分级研究法;地质时期风暴岩的分布和风暴作用范围:风暴作用的深度范围:有关HCS(丘状层理)的几个问题;古风暴沉积中风暴强度的研究方法:4.风暴岩研究的古地理意义:极源性研究;古水流方向的确定;盆地边缘轮廓的确定和古纬度的研究.     

龙门山甘溪组谢家湾段风暴岩沉积特征及其意义

通过野外剖面测量、采样和室内鉴定,建立了甘溪剖面泥盆系岩石学、古生物学和沉积构造等沉积相标志,对甘溪剖面泥盆系甘溪组风暴岩进行系统研究。本剖面风暴岩沉积特征很典型,各种与风暴流有关的沉积构造非常发育,可划分出近源和远源风暴流沉积2个类型。风暴岩的发现有利于加深对该区沉积相的认识,风暴岩的频繁发育,表明研究区在泥盆系沉积时,曾经处于易受到古大洋气候影响的低纬度区域,由于风暴作用是瞬时间的等时性事件,风暴沉积序列可以作为"明显的等时意义"地层对比的重要标志。因此,该项研究成果对重塑龙门山地区古海洋学、古气候学的研究,对恢复古板块位置等都十分重要。     

柴达木盆地新近纪湖相风暴岩的发现及其对青藏高原隆升的地质意义

通过对柴达木盆地路乐河和西岔沟剖面新近系沉积的详细分析,发现柴达木盆地新近纪发育典型的湖相风暴岩沉积。风暴沉积构造主要有风暴侵蚀构造、风暴撕裂构造、风暴浪构造以及及风暴期后快速沉积构造等,包括渠铸型构造、冲刷面构造、泥砾、丘状交错层理、洼状交错层理、平行层理和粒序层理等构造类型。根据风暴岩序列的规模、丘状交错层理的波长大小等因素分析柴达木盆地新近系上干柴沟组风暴的规模明显强于下油砂山组。上干柴沟组与下油砂山组之间古风暴强度的变化说明柴达木盆地在该时期发生了一次重大的古气候转型事件,与青藏高原整体初次隆升时间有较好的响应关系。风暴岩的发现,对于分析柴达木盆地新近纪的古地理、古气候、古构造及板块的运动规律具有重要意义,也为青藏高原的隆升研究提供了新资料、开辟了新途径。     

东、西准噶尔泥盆系火山碎屑风暴岩类型、特征及其地质意义

火山碎屑风暴岩是一种新的风暴岩成因类型,是内、外力地质事件综合作用的产物,它不仅具有陆屑、钙屑风暴岩所具有的古环境和古气候意义,而且是活动大地构造单元——火山岛弧带滨、浅海环境中的标志性事件沉积类型。文章以东、西准噶尔泥盆系火山碎屑风暴岩资料为基础,阐述了火山碎屑风暴岩的成因类型、特征、形成机理及其地质意义。     

鄂尔多斯盆地徐庄组碳酸盐岩风暴沉积发育特征及其地质意义

鄂尔多斯盆地寒武系徐庄组发育碳酸盐岩风暴沉积现象。风暴沉积主要包括侵蚀底面、风暴砾屑层、丘状和洼状层理等沉积构造。沉积构造在不同的条件下会形成不同的沉积序列,理想的沉积序列包括5个沉积单元,从下到上依次为：A侵蚀底面及砾屑段,代表风暴高峰期和衰减期的沉积作用,底面有突变的底界及特殊的沉积构造;B粒序段,为风暴减弱时沉积物从下向上变细的层段;C平行纹层段;D丘状纹层段,为风暴衰减期流体性质逐渐由密度流变为牵引流时形成的产物;E水平层理泥岩和泥晶灰岩段,为风暴停息期晴天条件下的产物。经野外考察发现研究区共可识别出5种不同类型的沉积序列组合,每种序列组合有不同的沉积特点,代表的沉积环境也不同。研究区寒武系徐庄组碳酸盐岩风暴沉积的发现和研究,对于古板块演化与古纬度恢复、鄂尔多斯盆地古地理研究具有重要的意义。     

湘西松柏场地区寒武系车夫组风暴岩的沉积特征及其地质意义北大核心CSCD

湘西松柏场寒武系车夫组为一套浅海相碳酸盐沉积,通过层序界面识别和沉积特征分析,将车夫组自下而上分为3个三级层序,其中第2个层序的低水位体系域和海侵体系域、第3个层序的海侵体系域中发育典型的风暴岩沉积。风暴沉积含有冲刷—充填构造、风暴砾屑层、风暴层理构造(丘状或洼状交错层理、粒序层理、浪成波痕和平行层理、水平层理等),包括5种岩相单元:砾屑灰岩段(A段)、发育水平层理的砂屑灰岩段(B段)、发育丘状交错层理的含砂屑粉屑灰岩段(C段)、发育水平层理或沙纹层理或波痕构造的粉屑灰岩段(D段)和薄层状泥晶微晶灰岩段(E段)。这些岩相单元组成ABCDE、ABDE、AD、ADE、AB、ABD、ACD共7个近源风暴岩类型和1个远源风暴岩类型DE。风暴岩的识别与发现表明该地区在寒武系车夫组沉积时期位于低纬度的风暴作用带,对湘西北寒武纪时期的古纬度与古板块演化、古地理及沉积学研究具有重要意义,同时为湘西北寒武纪地层的划分与对比、探讨该区风暴沉积模式的空间变化等提供了重要依据。     

甘肃靖远—景泰泥盆系湖相风暴岩及其古地理意义

甘肃靖远-景泰一带泥盆系雪山组和沙流水组以河湖相碎屑岩为主,内发育典型的风暴沉积构造(包括渠铸型、槽筑型、丘状交错层理和洼状交错层理、平等层理、块状层理和递变层理等).雪山组和沙流水组的风暴沉积主要包括3种岩相类型A底部具渠铸型或槽筑型的块状层理和递变层理砂岩.B具丘状或洼状交错层理及平行层理的砂岩.C具均质层理的粉砂岩、泥质岩.上述岩相A,B,C分别代表风暴事件沉积中风暴流行作用-风暴后的快速悬浮沉积(事件沉积),它们组合成典型的风暴沉积序列.甘肃靖远一带晚加里东早海西期位于北祁连造山带北缘同造山盆地的构造背景下,泥盆纪雪山组-沙流水组以河湖相沉积为主.泥盆纪湖相风暴岩的发现表明该区处于低纬度(5.～20.)的风暴作用带.中、晚泥盆世北祁连造山带构造隆升渐弱,海拔不高,不足以阻隔风暴作用对山后湖盆的侵扰.因此在近海湖盆中形成风暴岩沉积.该沉积对于认识北祁连河西走廊泥盆纪的古地理、古气候及古构造具有重要意义.     

甘肃靖远─景泰泥盆系湖相风暴岩及其古地理意义

甘肃靖远景泰一带泥盆系雪山组和沙流水组以河湖相碎屑岩为主 ,内发育典型的风暴沉积构造 (包括渠铸型、槽筑型、丘状交错层理和洼状交错层理、平等层理、块状层理和递变层理等 )。雪山组和沙流水组的风暴沉积主要包括 3种岩相类型 :A底部具渠铸型或槽筑型的块状层理和递变层理砂岩。 B具丘状或洼状交错层理及平行层理的砂岩。C具均质层理的粉砂岩、泥质岩。上述岩相 A,B,C分别代表风暴事件沉积中风暴流行作用 -风暴后的快速悬浮沉积 (事件沉积 ) ,它们组合成典型的风暴沉积序列。甘肃靖远一带晚加里东 -早海西期位于北祁连造山带北缘同造山盆地的构造背景下 ,泥盆纪雪山组 -沙流水组以河湖相沉积为主。泥盆纪湖相风暴岩的发现表明该区处于低纬度 (5°～ 2 0°)的风暴作用带。中、晚泥盆世北祁连造山带构造隆升渐弱 ,海拔不高 ,不足以阻隔风暴作用对山后湖盆的侵扰。因此在近海湖盆中形成风暴岩沉积。该沉积对于认识北祁连 -河西走廊泥盆纪的古地理、古气候及古构造具有重要意义     

Simulation of Storm Surges Along Myanmar Coast Using a Location Specific Numerical Model

Coastal flooding induced by storm surges associated with tropical cyclones is one of the greatest natural hazards sometimes even surpassing earthquakes. Although the frequency of tropical cyclones in the Indian seas is not high, the coastal region of India, Bangladesh and Myanmar suffer most in terms of life and property caused by the surges. Therefore, a location-specific storm surge prediction model for the coastal regions of Myanmar has been developed to carry out simulations of the 1975 Pathein, 1982 Gwa, 1992 Sandoway and 1994 Sittwe cyclones. The analysis area of the model covers from 8° N to 23° N and 90° E to 100° E. A uniform grid distance of about 9 km is taken along latitudinal and longitudinal directions. The coastal boundaries in the model are represented by orthogonal straight line segments. Using this model, numerical experiments are performed to simulate the storm surge heights associated with past severe cyclonic storms which struck the coastal regions of Myanmar. The model results are in agreement with the limited available surge estimates and observations.     

Future variability of droughts in three Mediterranean catchments

This study investigates the intensity change in typhoons and storm surges surrounding the Korean Peninsula under global warming conditions as obtained from the MPI_ECHAM5 climate model using the A1B series. The authors use the Cyclostationary Empirical Orthogonal Function to estimate future background fields for typhoon simulations from twenty-first-century prediction results. A series of numerical experiments applies WRF (Weather Research and Forecasting) and POM (Prinston Ocean Model) models to simulate two historical typhoons, Maemi (2003) and Rusa (2002), and associated storm surges under real historical and future warming conditions. Applying numerical experiments to two typhoons, this study found that their central pressure dropped about 19 and 17 hPa, respectively, when considering the future sea surface temperature (a warming of 3.9 °C for 100 years) over the East China Sea (Exp. 1). The associated enhancement of storm surge height ranged from 16 to 67 cm along the southern coast of the Korean Peninsula. However, when the study considered global warming conditions for other atmospheric variables such as sea-level pressure, air temperature, relative humidity, geopotential height, and wind in the typhoon simulations (Exp. 2), the intensities of the two typhoons and their associated surge heights scarcely increased compared to the results of Exp. 1. Analyzing projected atmospheric variables, the authors found that air temperatures at the top of the storm around 200 hPa increased more than those at the surface in tropical and mid-latitudes. The reduced vertical temperature difference provided an unfavorable condition in the typhoon’s development even under conditions of global warming. This suggests that global warming may not always correlate with a large increase in the number of intense cyclones and/or an increase in associated storm surges.     

Tropical cyclone activity in global warming scenario

Research efforts focused on assessing the potential for changes in tropical cyclone activity in the greenhouse-warmed climate have progressed since the IPCC assessment in 1996. Vulnerability to tropical cyclones becoming more pronounced due to the fastest population growth in tropical coastal regions makes it practically important to explore possible changes in tropical cyclone activity due to global warming. This paper investigates the tropical cyclone activity over whole globe and also individually over six different ocean basins. The parameters like storm frequency, storm duration, maximum intensity attained and location of formation of storm have been examined over the past 30-year period from 1977 to 2006. Of all, the north Atlantic Ocean shows a significant increasing trend in storm frequency and storm days, especially for intense cyclones. Lifetime of intense tropical cyclones over south Indian Ocean has been increased. The intense cyclonic activity over north Atlantic, south-west Pacific, north and south Indian Ocean has been increased in recent 15 years as compared to previous 15 years, whereas in the east and west-north Pacific it is decreased, instead weak cyclone activity has been increased there. Examination of maximum intensity shows that cyclones are becoming more and more intense over the south Indian Ocean with the highest rate. The study of the change in the cyclogenesis events in the recent 15 years shows more increase in the north Atlantic. The Arabian Sea experiences increase in the cyclogenesis in general, whereas Bay of Bengal witnesses decrease in these events. Shrinking of cyclogenesis region occurs in the east-north Pacific and south-west Pacific, whereas expansion occurs in west-north Pacific. The change in cyclogenesis events and their spatial distribution in association with the meteorological parameters like sea surface temperature (SST), vertical wind shear has been studied for Indian Ocean. The increase in SST and decrease in wind shear correspond to increase in the cyclogenesis events and vice versa for north Indian Ocean; however, for south Indian Ocean, it is not one to one.     

Extremity analysis of storm surge for fixing safe design water level

Phenomenal storm surge levels associated with cyclones are common in East Coast of India. The coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh are in rapid stride of myriad marine infrastructural developments. The safe elevations of coastal structures need a long-term assessment of storm surge conditions. Hence, past 50 years (1949–1998), tropical cyclones hit the Bay are obtained from Fleet Naval Meteorological & Oceanographic Center, USA, and analyzed to assess the storm surge experienced around Kakinada and along south Andhra Pradesh coast. In this paper, authors implemented Rankin Hydromet Vortex model and Bretschneider’s wind stress formulation to hindcast the surge levels. It is seen from the hindcast data that the November, 1977 cyclone has generated highest surge of the order of 1.98 m. Extreme value analysis is carried out using Weibull distribution for long-term prediction. The results reveal that the surge for 1 in 100-year return period is 2.0 m. Further the highest surge in 50 years generated by the severe cyclone (1977) is numerically simulated using hydrodynamic model of Mike-21. The simulation results show that the Krishnapatnam, Nizampatnam and south of Kakinada have experienced a surge of 1.0, 1.5 and 0.75 m, respectively.     

A numerical study of storm surges caused by cold-air outbreaks in the Bohai Sea

Storm surges in the Bohai Sea are not only associated with tropical cyclones and extra-tropical cyclones, but also cold-air outbreaks. Cold-air outbreaks attack China from four major tracks, with each track having its own prevailing wind over the Bohai Sea. As the pressure field of cold-air outbreaks can be converted into the surface wind, storm surges can be investigated by the pressure field of cold-air outbreaks entirely. This paper took the different major tracks, pressure field, and high wind period into consideration and constructed 20 scenarios to describe the actual situation of cold-air outbreaks. Based on the results modeled by FVCOM, the influence of various cold-air outbreaks on the maximum surge in the Bohai Sea and the probability of the surge elevation at three typical tide gauges were investigated. Finally, a powerful decision-making tool to estimate storm surges induced by cold-air outbreaks was provided.     

The Tropical Cyclone Risk in Cairns

Because of its location close to a region of tropical cyclone formation, the city ofCairns is regularly affected by tropical cyclones. Most cyclones occur in the monthsJanuary–March, although some have affected Cairns in December and April. There is a strong year-to-year variation in tropical cyclone numbers in the Cairns region, with twice as many impacts occurring during La Niña conditions than during El Niño. Several case studies are presented of cyclone impacts on Cairns. Rapidly developing cyclones are a particularly difficult forecast problem, as they can strike the city with less than 24 hours warning. Serious inundation from storm surge often occurs some time after landfall at Cairns.     

Storm surge modelling for the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea

Most of the countries around the North Indian Ocean are threatened by storm surges associated with severe tropical cyclones. The destruction due to the storm surge flooding is a serious concern along the coastal regions of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Oman. Storm surges cause heavy loss of lives and property damage to the coastal structures and losses of agriculture which lead to annual economic losses in these countries. About 300,000 lives were lost in one of the most severe cyclones that hit Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) in November 1970. The Andhra Cyclone devastated part of the eastern coast of India, killing about 10,000 persons in November 1977. More recently, the Chittagong cyclone of April 1991 killed 140,000 people in Bangladesh, and the Orissa coast of India was struck by a severe cyclonic storm in October 1999, killing more than 15,000 people besides enormous loss to the property in the region. These and most of the world’s greatest natural disasters associated with the tropical cyclones have been directly attributed to storm surges. The main objective of this article is to highlight the recent developments in storm surge prediction in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.     

A new typhoon bogussing scheme to obtain the possible maximum typhoon and its application for assessment of impacts of the possible maximum storm surges in Ise and Tokyo Bays in Japan

We developed the new typhoon bogussing scheme to obtain the possible maximum typhoon approaching any region under any climatic conditions by using a potential vorticity inversion method. Numerical simulations with the new typhoon bogussing scheme are conducted for assessment of storm surges by possible maximum typhoons under the present-day and global warming climatic conditions in Ise and Tokyo Bays in Japan. The results suggest that the storm tide higher than the maximum storm tide in recorded history can occur in Ise and Tokyo Bays even for the present-day climate and the storm tide higher than the design sea level can cause severe damage to Nagoya and Tokyo megacities, in particular, airport facilities in Ise Bay for the global warming climate. These results suggest that the new typhoon bogussing scheme we developed is useful for assessment of impacts of storm surge by the possible maximum typhoons.     

Hydrodynamic Response of Northeastern Gulf of Mexico to Hurricanes

The northeastern Gulf of Mexico in the USA is extremely susceptible to the impacts of tropical cyclones because of its unique geometric and topographic features. Focusing on Hurricanes Ivan (2004) and Katrina (2005), this paper has addressed four scientific questions on this area’s response to hurricanes: (1) How does the shallow, abandoned Mississippi delta contribute to the storm surge? (2) What was the controlling factor that caused the record-high storm surge of Hurricane Katrina? (3) Why are the responses of an estuary to Hurricanes Ivan and Katrina so different from the corresponding surges on the open coast? (4) How would the storm surge differ if Hurricane Katrina had taken a different course? Guided by field observations of winds, waves, water levels, and currents, two state-of-the-art numerical models for storm surges and wind waves have been coupled to hindcast the relevant hydrodynamic conditions, including storm surges, surface waves, and depth-averaged currents. Fairly good agreement between the modeled and measured surge hydrographs was found. The quantitative numerical simulations and simple qualitative analysis have revealed that the record-high storm surge of Hurricane Katrina was caused by the interaction of the surge with the extremely shallow, ancient deltaic lobe of Mississippi River. A hypothetical scenario formed by shifting the path of Hurricane Katrina to the observed path of Hurricane Frederic (1979) resulted in a much smaller surge than that observed in coastal Mississippi and Louisiana. However, this scenario did still result in a high surge near the head of Mobile Bay. One of the important lessons learned from Hurricane Katrina is that the Saffir–Simpson scale should be systematically revised to reflect the topographic and geometric features of a complex, heterogeneous coast, including the possible surge amplification in an estuary or a submerged river delta.