Positional accuracy improvement: a comparative study in Shanghai,China

With the rapid development of geospatial data capture technologies such as the Global Positioning System, more and higher accuracy data are now readily available to upgrade existing spatial datasets having lower accuracy using positional accuracy improvement (PAI) methods. Such methods may not achieve survey-accurate spatial datasets but can contribute to significant improvements in positional accuracy in a cost-effective manner. This article addresses a comparative study on PAI methods with applications to improve the spatial accuracy of the digital cadastral for Shanghai. Four critical issues are investigated: (1) the choice of improvement model in PAI adjustment; five PAI models are presented, namely the translation, scale and translation, similarity, affine, and second-order polynomial models; (2) the choice of estimation method in PAI adjustment; three estimation methods in PAI adjustment are proposed, namely the classical least squares (LS) adjustment, which assumes that only the observation vector contains error, the general least squares (GLS) adjustment, which regards both the ground and map coordinates of control points as observations with errors, and the total least squares (TLS) adjustment, which takes the errors in both the observation vector and the design matrix into account; (3) the impact of the configuration of ground control points (GCPs) on the result of PAI adjustment; 12 scenarios of GCP configurations are tested, including different numbers and distributions of GCPs; and (4) the deformation of geometric shape by the above-mentioned transformation models is presented in terms of area and perimeter.

The empirical experiment results for six test blocks in Shanghai demonstrated the following. (1) The translation model hardly improves the positional accuracy because it accounts only for the shift error within digital datasets. The other four models (i.e., the scale and translation, similarity, affine, and second-order polynomial models) significantly improve the positional accuracy, which is assessed at checkpoints (CKPs) by calculating the difference between the updated coordinates transformed from the map coordinates and the surveyed coordinates. On the basis of the refined Akaike information criterion, the two best optimal transformation models for PAI are determined as the scale and translation and affine transformation models. (2) The weighted sum of square errors obtained using the GLS and TLS methods are much less than those obtained using the classical least squares method. The result indicates that both the GLS and TLS estimation methods can achieve greater reliability and accuracy in PAI adjustment. (3) The configuration of GCPs has a considerable effect on the result of PAI adjustment. Thus, an optimal configuration scheme of GCPs is determined to obtain the highest positional accuracy in the study area. (4) Compared with the deformations of geometric shapes caused by the transformation models, the scale and translation model is found to be the best model for the study area.     

Mapping Systems and GIS: A Case Study using the Ghana National Grid

The problem of incompatible projections and conversion between mapping systems is of general concern to those involved in the collection of natural resources data. The Ghana National Grid (GNG) is an example of a mapping system that is not defined in image processing and GIS software and for which the transformation parameters are not readily available in the literature. Consequently, integrating GNG topographic map data within a GIS with data derived from other sources can be problematic. In this paper a practical solution for deriving the required transformation parameters to convert from the World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84) to the GNG system is demonstrated. The method uses a single geodetic control point, available 1:50 000 topographic maps and a SPOT satellite panchromatic image geo-referenced to GNG. The resultant parameters are applied to road survey data in Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) format for overlay with the SPOT image. Despite the approximations made in applying the method, when compared against official estimates of the datum transformation parameters, this relatively simple procedure resulted in estimates that appear acceptable in regard to combining data sets at a nominal scale of 1:50000.     

Introducing scale parameters for adjusting area objects in GIS based on least squares and variance component estimation

In this paper, a least‐squares based cadastral parcel area adjustment in geographic information systems (GIS) is developed based on (1) both the areas and coordinates being treated as observations with errors; and (2) scale parameters being introduced to take the systematic effect into account in the process of cadastral map digitization. The area condition equation for cadastral parcel considerations of scale parameters and geometric constraints is first constructed. The effects of the scale error on area adjustment results are then derived, and statistical hypothesis testing is presented to determine the significance of the scale error. Afterwards, Helmert's variance component estimation based on least‐squares adjustment using the condition equation with additional parameters is proposed to determine the weight between the coordinate and area measurements of the parcel. Practical tests are conducted to illustrate the implementation of the proposed methods. Four schemes for solving the inconsistencies between the registered areas and the digitized areas of the parcels are studied. The analysis of the results demonstrates that in the case of significant systematic errors in cadastral map digitization, the accuracies of the adjusted coordinates and areas are improved by introducing scale parameters to reduce the systematic error influence in the parcel area adjustment. Meanwhile, Helmert's variance component estimation method determines more accurate weights of the digitized coordinates and parcel areas, and the least‐squares adjustment solves the inconsistencies between the registered areas and the digitized areas of the parcels.     

平面影像到QTM像元的转换算法及精度分析

平面影像数据到四元三角网(Quaternary Triangular Mesh,QTM)像元的转换是实现全球QTM格网影像无缝建模的首要任务。提出基于面积权的数据转换方法,给出不同类型的权重及格网值的计算,并利用ArcGIS中256级灰度的Wsiearth.tif图像数据分析了转换精度。结果表明:将4 km分辨率的影像数据转换到12层的QTM像元时,转换误差在0~2灰度内占96.27%,对一般应用的影响可以忽略不计。     

1947年中国南海断续线精准划定的地形依据

基于1947年中国政府内政部印制的1:400万《南海诸岛位置图》,采用地理信息系统及数字化仿射变换精准测量出11段断续线的地理坐标,同时利用4.4万多个实测水深点数据建立南海海底三维地形模型,通过叠加分析获得了1947年南海断续线所在位置的海底地形特征。结果显示：断续线东长西短,间距东西大、南北小,其走向、形态与下伏地形特征相符合,主要分布在大陆坡和大陆架上;并基于断续线下伏海底地形分析,推断出当时断续线划定时可能遵循如下依据：① 在浅海盆地、海峡处采用“等距离中间线”原则进行划分;② 在具有明显地形变化处沿海槽坡麓或海槽槽沟中线进行划分;③ 在西南部陆坡陆架区,结合岸线走向及下伏地形特征进行划分。     

基于线性GSI二维半变异函数各向异性结构建模及估计研究——以DEM数据为例

鉴于传统各向异性二维半变异函数各向同性化方法未充分考虑或无力精确描述其内部结构信息的缺陷,本研究通过引入线性广义尺度不变（GSI）模型,以DEM数据作为验证对象,对二维半变异函数各向异性结构信息进行多尺度建模,并采用旋转椭圆法、两步搜索作图法等方法对系统参数进行估计,最后以球状模型为例对理论半变异函数的估计精度,及其在空间数据插值中的应用效果进行对比研究。结果表明：各向异性普遍存在于地形数据的空间变异中,有证据表明,这种各向异性结构中处处显现出不同的变形特征,但是也存在着某种规则性的成分,如各向同性圆形或近圆形等值线,因此,在对坐标进行各向同性化处理时不适合采用“一刀切”的方式去处理;GSI系统参数皆能得到较高精度的估计,如决定系数R²普遍达到了0.99以上,间接证明了GSI模型对地形数据各向异性结构处理的有效性和适用性;通过理论模型估计和插值结果对比,线性GSI坐标转换法比传统坐标转换法有了明显的精度提升,并且展现出了较高的边缘信息恢复能力,但也表现出了一定的局限性和不稳定性。     

高分辨率星载遥感立体像对3D测量模型

由于具备立体测量功能的高分辨率卫星不断增多,使利用星载遥感影像立体像对获取DEM逐渐成为可能。与传统航空摄影测量相比,星载方式平台稳定,其姿态控制与测量精度较高,能充分保证3D测量的精度。对Quick-BirdI、KONOSS、POT5 3种卫星相似的立体成像方式进行研究,利用星历和姿态内插方法确定多中心投影的外方位元素初始值,利用前、后视共线方程及误差方程构建通用的立体测量数学模型,最后由若干控制点解算出立体测量所需定向参数。以SPOT5数据为例,进行外方位元素解算及模型误差分析,结果表明模型具有较好的3D测量精度。     

中国南极长城站测绘基准系统的建立

经1985年12月～1987年3月,三年度夏测绘科学考察,在中国南极长城站地区建立了一套完整的、精确的测绘基准系统。它包括大地坐标系统、高程系统和重力参考系统。本文叙述了建立这些基准系统的方法和数学模型,并分析了测量精度。     

Geostatistical Simulation with a Trend Using Gaussian Mixture Models

Geostatistics applies statistics to quantitatively describe geological sites and assess the uncertainty due to incomplete sampling. Strong assumptions are required regarding the location independence of statistical parameters to construct numerical models with geostatistical tools. Most geological data exhibit large-scale deterministic trends together with short-scale variations. Such location dependence violates the common geostatistical assumption of stationarity. The trend-like deterministic features should be modeled prior to conventional geostatistical prediction and accounted for in subsequent geostatistical calculations. The challenge of using a trend in geostatistical simulation algorithms for the continuous variable is the subject of this paper. A stepwise conditional transformation with a Gaussian mixture model is considered to provide a stable and artifact-free numerical model. The complex features of the regionalized variable in the presence of a trend are removed in the forward transformation and restored in the back transformation. The Gaussian mixture model provides a seamless bin-free approach to transformation. Data from a copper deposit were used as an example. These data show an apparent trend unsuitable for conventional geostatistical algorithms. The result shows that the proposed algorithm leads to improved geostatistical models.     

Ray amplitudes of seismic body waves in laterally inhomogeneous media

Summary . The most complicated part in the computation of ray amplitudes of seismic body waves in laterally inhomogeneous media with curved interfaces lies in the evaluation of the geometrical spreading. Geometrical spreading can be simply expressed in terms of the Jacobian J of the transformation from the Cartesian into ray coordinates. Several systems of ordinary differential equations to compute the function J are suggested. For general three-dimensional media, in which the velocity changes with all the three spatial coordinates, a system of three non-linear ordinary differential equations of the first order is derived. If the velocity does not depend on one coordinate, the system of equations reduces to only one non-linear differential equation. The initial conditions for these differential equations at point (or line) source and at points of intersection of the ray with curved interfaces are presented.     

社会—生态系统体制转换视角下的黄土高原乡村转型发展——以长武县洪家镇为例

社会—生态系统理论为中国乡村转型发展的过程格局研究提供了新的分析思路,运用体制转化理论及其研究框架,选取陕西省长武县洪家镇为案例地,从村域尺度社会—生态系统体制变化为切入点揭示了当地乡村转型的背景和环境因素,重点探讨农户尺度的社会—生态系统体制转换影响因素及其稳健性,从微观角度审视西北乡村转型的基本特征,主要结论包括：① 当地乡村社会—生态系统体制已由传统农业体制转变为新型农业体制,其中某些家庭体制正在向非农体制转换。② 家庭特征是农户体制发生转换的客观条件;耕地质量、劳动力数量与质量是农户体制转换的内在动因;户主年龄、文化水平及社会网络是农户体制转换方向的决定因素。③ 农户家庭体制转换呈现出发散和聚合并存现象,且不同家庭的稳健性存在明显差异,基于种植业结构和收入对农户家庭进行分类,不同类型农户家庭体制的稳健型依次表现为其：苹果非农均衡型>非农收入主导型>粮食非农均衡型>苹果收入主导型>传统收入主导型。最后基于农户视角对乡村转型的微观研究进行探讨,并提出后续深化研究的方向和实践启示。     

Characterization of landslide ground surface kinematics from terrestrial laser scanning and strain field computation

Assessment and mitigation of the risk induced by landslide activation need an appropriate phenomenon investigation, to obtain useful information about the failure processes. The first step is the complete kinematics characterization of the landslide ground surface, by evaluating the involved displacement and deformation patterns. A dense displacement field can be obtained from comparison of a series of multi-temporal observations performed by means of terrestrial laser scanning. Subsequently, the strain field can be computed from displacement vectors. In this paper, a modified least square technique is employed to compute the strain on the nodes of a regular grid (2D approach) or on the points of a digital terrain model (3D approach). Such a computation takes into account the displacements, their spatial distribution, as well as the measurement and modelling errors. A scale factor is introduced in order to emphasize the contributions of the experimental points on the basis of their distance from each computation point, and to recognize possible scale-depending behaviours. This method has been implemented in Matlab and applied on two landslides located in the northeastern Italian Alps (Lamosano and Perarolo di Cadore). The experiments show that different kinematics can be recognized, and the presence and influence of eventual discontinuities can be revealed.     

Map-image registration accuracy using least-squares polynomials

Abstract

Results of a simulation study of map-image rectification accuracy are reported. Sample size, spatial distribution pattern and measurement errors in a set of ground control points, and the computational algorithm employed to derive the estimate of the parameters of a least-squares bivariate map-image transformation function, are varied in order to assess the sensitivity of the procedure. Standard errors and confidence limits are derived for each of 72 cases, and it is shown that the effects of all four factors are significant. Standard errors fall rapidly as sample size increases, and rise as the control point pattern becomes more linear. Measurement error is shown to have a significant effect on both accuracy and precision. The Gram-Schmidt orthogonal polynomial algorithm performs consistently better than the Gauss-Jordan matrix inversion procedure in all circumstances.     

Aggregation in continuous space coverage modeling

Uncertainties and errors associated with aggregation have long been recognized in the study of spatial problems. In facility location modeling, while much has been done to examine the aggregation of large datasets of discrete points, errors and uncertainties involved in aggregating continuous spatial units are not well understood. This study focuses on the effects of aggregating continuous spatial units into discrete points within the context of the location set covering problem. We propose new measures to understand and quantify errors associated with a continuous aggregation scheme. In a real-world application, the proposed methods can be used to suggest an appropriate aggregation scheme before the application of the location model. We demonstrate the concepts developed here with an empirical study of siting emergency warning sirens in the city of Dublin, OH.     

Methods for detecting apparent differences between spatial tessellations at different time points

This paper proposes methods for detecting apparent differences between spatial tessellations at two different points in time, with the objective of conflation of spatial tessellations at multiple time points. The methods comprise three steps. First, we eliminate systematic differences between tessellations using the affine transformation. Second, we match subregions between tessellations at two points in time and match boundaries based on matching relationships between the subregions. Third, we propose a distance metric for measuring differences between the matched boundaries and a method for determining whether the measured differences are apparent or not. We apply the proposed methods to a part of the US Census data for 1990 and 2000 and empirically demonstrate the effectiveness of these methods.     

A data-mapping approach to 3-D wavefield redatuming

In case of a complex overburden, the seismic data can be greatly improved by applying a full wavefield redatuming procedure. In practice, the application of the redatuming process to 3-D data acquired by conventional acquisition designs is non-trivial. Because of the large amount of data involved in the 3-D redatuming process and because of the sparseness of these data, it is impossible to apply conventional wave equation datuming directly.
We present a data mapping approach to redatuming (DMR), which follows the concept of Kirchhoff data mapping. A simplified background medium where no ray bending occurs is assumed for the medium below the datum in order to map an input data set referenced to the acquisition surface to an output data set referenced to the new datum level. The DMR method can be interpreted as a simplified version of the Kirchhoff summation redatuming (KSR) method, where one of the 2-D integrals over the acquisition coordinates can be solved analytically. Consequently, in this approach fewer traces are involved in the computation of one time sample (a 2-D integral is computed instead of a 4-D integral), which makes it particularly attractive for the application to 3-D data sets.
In this paper the theory underlying data mapping redatuming is discussed and the proposed approach is tested on fully sampled 2-D and 3-D synthetic data from models with both simple and complex velocity distributions in the subsurface.
The tests clearly show that the objective of producing results that are comparable to the conventional KSR has been achieved. The redatumed traces are dynamically and kinematically correct. Furthermore, these results confirm that the dependency of the new approach on the assumed medium below the datum level is, indeed, weak because the assumption of a velocity medium where no ray bending occurs is already sufficient to produce correct results.     

仿射变换法在航天MSS数据变换中的应用

航天MSS数据数字纠正、MSS图象复盖地图资料、遥感图象配置区界的模拟试验等结果表明,仿射变换法可分别满足平地与山区1:25万和1:100万的地理制图的精度要求。     

A six-parameter statistical model of the Earth's magnetic field

A six-parameter statistical model of the non-dipole geomagnetic field is fitted to 2597 harmonic coefficients determined by Cain, Holter & Sandee (1990) from MAGSAT data. The model includes sources in the core, sources in the crust, and instrument errors. External fields are included with instrument errors. The core and instrument statistics are invariant under rotation about the centre of the Earth, and one of the six parameters describes the deviation of the crustal statistics from rotational invariance. The model treats the harmonic coefficients as independent random samples drawn from a Gaussian distribution. The statistical model of the core field has a correlation length of about 500 km at the core-mantle boundary, too long to be attributed to a white noise source just below the boundary layers at the top of the core. The estimate of instrument errors obtained from the statistical model is in good agreement with an independent estimate based on tests of the instruments (Langel, Ousley & Berbert 1982).     

Seismic scattering in the upper crystalline crust based on evidence from sonic logs

Telluric distortion occurs when electric charges accumulate along near-surface inhomogeneities. At low frequencies, the electric currents associated with these charges can be neglected compared to currents induced deeper in the Earth. At higher frequencies, the magnetic fields associated with these currents may be significant. Some parameters describing the distortion magnetic fields can be estimated from measured magneto-telluric impedance matrices. For regional magnetic fields aligned with regional strike directions, parameters associated with the distortion magnetic field component parallel to the regional magnetic field are undeterminable, whereas parameters associated with the distortion magnetic field component perpendicular to the regional magnetic field can be estimated. Optimal estimates are straightforward even for the realistic case of measurement errors that are correlated between elements of a measured impedance matrix. In a simple example of a 1-D anisotropic model with anisotropy direction varying with depth, the modelling of distortion magnetic fields results in regional impedance estimates corresponding more closely to the responses of uncoupled isotropic models, allowing sensible interpretation of an additional one and a half decades of data.