Development of design storm hyetographs in hyper-arid and arid regions: case study of Sultanate of Oman

The temporal distribution of the design storm is an important input in hydrological models. This research aims to develop design storm profiles representative of arid and hyper-arid areas based on actual storm recordings. Two hundred thirty-six rainfall storms were collected from seventeen rainfall gauges that cover the coastal zone of Oman for the period from 1993 to 2007. Storms were classified into four categories according to their total durations. Design storm hyetographs were derived from raw rainfall records for all four categories using the Alternating Block Method (ABM) and were also computed by ABM applied on the Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves. Both design storm profiles were compared and it was found that the ABM_IDF storm profiles were equivalent to the four ABM_Storms profiles from a practical point of view as they produce similar peak discharges. The storm profiles developed in the current research were also compared to the commonly used Soil Conservation Service (SCS) dimensionless distributions and the UK50 storm profiles. The results showed that the most conservative commonly used SCS type II and the UK50 summer profiles are not safe to be used in design purposes in arid and hyper arid regions, despite their wide utilization in many codes of practice in these regions. The study recommends using the newly developed dimensionless storm profiles derived from the actual records.     

Evaluation of several techniques for estimating stormwater runoff in arid watersheds

Several traditional techniques have been used for estimating storm-water runoff from ungauged watersheds. Some of these techniques were applied to watersheds of Rashadia in south-eastern desert of Jordan. When engineers apply rainfall-runoff models for hydrologic design, there are difficulties in defining and quantifying peak discharges that are required to design different types of hydraulic structures. The lack of data presents major difficulties for rainfall-runoff modeling in arid regions. These regions have characteristically high rainfall intensity and consequent flash floods. The specific objectives of this study are: (1) apply synthetic hydrographs for estimating peak discharges from limited hydrological data. (2) Evaluate the reliability of six techniques to accurately estimate storm-water runoff; and, to evaluate the runoff that is required to design hydraulic structures such as bridges, culverts and dams. (3) Estimate the flood resulting from direct runoff after subtracting all the loses such as: the infiltration, interflow and evaporation. (4) Develop a simple regression relationship between peak flow discharges and catchment areas. The results show that there is uncertainty in determining the accuracy of storm-water volume, this is due to several methods were utilizing the estimation the hydrographs base time, but promising results in predicting the peak flow discharge.     

水文模型系统在峨嵋河流域洪水模拟中的应用

研究目的是采用水文模型系统(HMS)模拟峨嵋河流域暴雨水文过程,并为长江上游地区气候和水文响应研究提供可靠的信息。HMS是一种分布式水文模型可用于研究各种气候因子和地表覆盖变化而引起的水文过程响应,该系统(HMS)利用气象、土壤类型、土地利用和地表覆盖、数字高程(DEM)和降雨径流等资料,研究气候、陆面、地表水和地下水的相互作用机理。在本次研究中,采用SCS Curve Number(CN)和Green-Ampt(GA)方法来计算径流过程,用GIS来数字化DEM、土壤、土地利用和陆地覆盖数据。通过用不同时间间隔的降雨和不同计算方法的水力参数模拟水文过程,来检验降雨的时间尺度效应和水力参数的空间变异性对水文过程的影响。结果表明,HMS对峨嵋河流域暴雨洪水的模拟及预测具有较好的适用性。     

Sensitivity analysis of runoff hydrographs due to temporal rainfall patterns in Makkah Al-Mukkramah region,Saudi Arabia

Runoff peak and volume in flood studies are estimated relying on temporal rainfall distribution from various storm patterns. Usually, SCS distributions types (I, II, III, IA) are commonly used. Using these distributions in runoff calculations assume that the in situ temporal rainfall pattern typically behaves as the one described by the SCS-type distribution, which is due to cyclonic frontal storms and actually developed in temperate environment. To what extent such assumption is valid in the arid environment? How much the impacts of rainfall temporal patterns are reflected in runoff volumes and peaks? The aim objectives of the current study are to answer the above two questions and clarify the validity of aforementioned assumption and exemplify such effect. Real rainfall data collected from rain gauges of Makkah Al-Mukkramah region over a period of more than 20 years are utilized. Temporal rainfall patterns and their parameters are deduced. Many hydrological simulations are performed and comparisons, in terms of runoff volume and peak flows, are made to show the effects of the common rainfall storm patterns and the developed rainfall storm patterns in the region based on the current study. Results indicate that major bursts of the design rainfall storm pattern are located in the first time of the storm period in the two quartiles which is mainly due to convective rainfall type in thunderstorms unlike the commonly used by SCS types relying on frontal cyclonic storms. Makkah Al-Mukkramah temporal rainfall pattern does not behave as the “typical pattern” assumed by SCS distributions that are deduced from different environments. The impacts of the temporal pattern reflected as an overestimate in the runoff peak reached to 68 %. The developed hyetographs and tables presented in the current study are recommended to enhance economical and rational design practice in watersheds of Makkah Al-Mukkramah region.     

Adequacy of satellite derived rainfall data for stream flow modeling

Floods are the most common and widespread climate-related hazard on Earth. Flood forecasting can reduce the death toll associated with floods. Satellites offer effective and economical means for calculating areal rainfall estimates in sparsely gauged regions. However, satellite-based rainfall estimates have had limited use in flood forecasting and hydrologic stream flow modeling because the rainfall estimates were considered to be unreliable. In this study we present the calibration and validation results from a spatially distributed hydrologic model driven by daily satellite-based estimates of rainfall for sub-basins of the Nile and Mekong Rivers. The results demonstrate the usefulness of remotely sensed precipitation data for hydrologic modeling when the hydrologic model is calibrated with such data. However, the remotely sensed rainfall estimates cannot be used confidently with hydrologic models that are calibrated with rain gauge measured rainfall, unless the model is recalibrated. G. Artan, J. L. Smith and K. Asante – work performed under USGS contract 03CRCN0001.     

Mapping of groundwater prospective zones integrating remote sensing,geographic information systems and geophysical techniques in El-Qaà Plain area,Egypt

The geospatial mapping of groundwater prospective zones is essential to support the needs of local inhabitants and agricultural activities in arid regions such as El-Qaà area, Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. The study aims to locate new wells that can serve to cope with water scarcity. The integration of remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS) and geophysical techniques is a breakthrough for groundwater prospecting. Based on these techniques, several factors contributing to groundwater potential in El-Qaà Plain were determined. Geophysical data were supported by information derived from a digital elevation model, and from geologic, geomorphologic and hydrologic data, to reveal the promising sites. All the spatial data that represent the contributing factors were integrated and analyzed in a GIS framework to develop a groundwater prospective model. An appropriate weightage was specified to each factor based on its relative contribution towards groundwater potential, and the resulting map delineates the study area into five classes, from very poor to very good potential. The very good potential zones are located in the Quaternary deposits, with flat to gentle topography, dense lineaments and structurally controlled drainage channels. The groundwater potential map was tested against the distribution of groundwater wells and cultivated land. The integrated methodology provides a powerful tool to design a suitable groundwater management plan in arid regions.     

基于Monte-Carlo方法的施工导流系统综合风险分析

施工期导流动态风险不仅与水文不确定性、水力不确定性有关,而且与坝体施工进度及其完工工期的不确定性有关。以风险分析为核心,将各种不确定性因素耦合起来研究施工导流系统的综合风险,提出施工进度计划风险分析模型和假定坝体施工进度确定条件下的施工导流风险分析模型,在此基础上,建立基于Monte-Carlo方法全面考虑水文水力不确定性以及施工进度不确定性的施工导流系统综合风险分析模型。实例分析说明,该施工导流系统综合风险研究方法和分析模型是可靠的、适用的。     

Flood forecasting and analysis within the Ulus Basin, Turkey, using geographic information systems

Floods have been the most severe natural disasters in the West Black Sea Region of Turkey for many years; therefore Ulus Basin is selected as a study area for a thorough hydrologic flood analysis. The lack of embankments around the Ulus River and careless changes to the riverbed made by villagers, resulted in major flood events in the basin, causing significant damage in the area. In this study, the hydrodynamic characteristics of the basin and the riverbed are determined by calibrating the hydraulic module of the MIKE 11 modeling system with the observed 1991 flood. Then, for the 25-, 50- and 100-year floods the highest water levels in the river are forecasted by integration of the MIKE 11 hydrologic and hydraulic modules. Afterwards, inundation maps are obtained by using together the hydraulic and GIS modules of the MIKE 11 system.     

Effects of drilling fluid invasion on hydraulic characterization of low-permeability basalt horizons: A field evaluation

Low-permeability basalts at the Hanford Site, in south-central Washington State, are currently being investigated for suitability as repository horizons for the terminal storage of commercial, high-level radioactive wastes As part of on-going Basalt Waste isolation Project (BWIP) studies, a field evaluation was conducted to assess the effect that drilling fluid invasion may have on the hydraulic characterization of low-permeability basalts The test formation selected for the field evaluation was a 24 7-m section of basalt flow interior that had been previously core-drilled utilizing only fresh water. The test design of the field evaluation included an initial phase (phase I) of hydrologic testing followed by the injection of bentonite-base drilling fluid into the test section, removal of the drilling fluid from the borehole, and a final phase (phase II) of hydrologic testing Hydrologic tests conducted during each phase included overpressure pulse tests (pressurized slug tests) and a multiple-step, constant head injection test Results of the field evaluation indicate that no discernible impact on hydraulic property estimates or test response could be attributed to drilling fluid invasion.     

马莲河河水与地下水的相互关系:水化学和同位素证据

查明地表水与地下水的转化关系是建立区域水循环模式、揭示水资源形成机制、评价水资源总量以及可持续开发利用水资源的必要环节.马莲河位于我国西北干旱半干旱气候区,流域内水资源时空分布不均,生态环境脆弱,水资源问题严重.受到区域气候、地质构造和自然地理环境的影响,河水与地下水的转化频繁、关系复杂.在分析了流域内地下水动力场特征的基础上,应用水化学方法和同位素技术相结合的方法分析了马莲河河水与地下水的相互转化关系.马莲河河水主要以接受地下水补给为主,仅在中游个别河段与地下水的水力联系较弱.     

水力类泥石流起动机理与预报研究进展与方向

水力类泥石流是泥石流的一大类型,一旦暴发可造成巨大的人员伤亡和财产损失,因而其起动机理和预报是泥石流学科的前沿课题。尽管国内外研究在该领域取得了显著进展,但是由于该类泥石流起动机理的复杂性,已有的预报模型和其实用性仍然有相当的差距。概述了水力类泥石流起动与预报的国内外研究进展,提出未来该研究方向的主要研究内容。未来研究内容应该包括从环境地质学、地貌学和水文学角度认识水力类泥石流的起动成因和过程及相应的临界条件;研究以水文学为主线的水力类泥石流的起动机理和模型,并提出水力类泥石流的起动水文参数临界条件;建立以临界流量法和分布式水文模型为理论依据的水力类泥石流的预报途径和方法。该研究对加强水力类泥石流起动机理及预测预报的创新性研究和促进学科发展具有重要的科学价值和实践意义。     

季节性冻土区水文特性及模型研究进展

简要评述了寒区冻土水文的研究进展情况,在分析季节性冻土的冻融水文过程和特点的基础上,系统归纳与总结了季节性冻融土壤条件下的融雪径流的产流模型、入渗规律及预报模型、对非寒区水文模型改进后应用到寒区的探讨及定量研究冻土水分迁移运动的数值模拟方法,并提出未来研究方向:开发更加逼近真实情况的水文水利模型;野外大田实验数据的监测采集并确定水文模型的参数;将水文模型与冻土水分迁移模型的完善结合.     

Geological and hydrological investigation of a water collection system in arid Jordanian lands

With the increase in population of developing and under developed countries, and with the availability of water resources strained and in many areas deficient, it is quite evident that water conservation and distribution programs need to be adopted on a scale far greater than any yet in use. This requires a more detailed evaluation and development of any water resource. In this study, the geology and geomorphology of the Safawi area northeast of Jordan and the climatic conditions were evaluated as an aid in determining the potential for the collection of surface water. The runoff coefficient, flood frequency, and runoff volumes from some selected valleys were determined through the use of the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method and other known techniques. The results of this study indicated that the collection of surface water in this arid region is feasible. Estimates were made for the runoff coefficient and annual runoff volumes through the application of the accepted hydraulic engineering methods.     

Development of storm hyetographs for flood forecasting in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

This paper presents the derivation of the design storm hyetograph patterns for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia based on real rainfall events from meteorological stations distributed throughout the Kingdom. Two thousand twenty-seven rainfall storms for a 20–28-year period were collected and analyzed covering 13 regions of the Kingdom. Four distinct dimensionless rainfall hyetograph patterns have been obtained over the Kingdom, while two patterns have been obtained for each individual region because of the lack of data for long-duration storms in individual regions. The resulting dimensionless rainfall patterns for each region can be used to develop storm hyetographs for any design duration, total rainfall depth and return period. It has been shown that the developed storm hyetographs have different features from other storm patterns that are commonly used in arid zones. The study recommends using these curves for the design of hydraulic structures in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and regions alike.     

Developing models and envelope curves for extreme floods in the Saudi Arabia arid environment

Forecasting and monitoring extreme floods in arid regions like Saudi Arabia (SA) are a big challenge for engineers and hydrologists. It is difficult to derive reliable flood estimates at any site without adequate flood measurements. Therefore, envelope curves were developed for reliable estimates of flood peaks. Relaying on recorded flood events in SA, Francou–Rodier approach is used to develop the Regional Maximum Flood (RMF) for some wadis and for SA as a whole. A total of 3121 flood events in 32 arid basins of sizes varying from 99 to more than 4500 km² are collected and analyzed. Results show that established regional coefficients (K) range between 2.76 and 5.5. The RMF formula for the Saudi regions is Q?=?251 A^0.45. The flood-frequency analysis showed that the Log-Pearson Type III is best. The extreme observed floods for the envelope curve for K?=?5.5 accommodate floods of recurrence interval ranging between 1000 and 100,000 years. The study results provide more realistic runoff peaks for a design of flood protection works for SA watersheds and for the similar environment. Consequently, it is recommended to use the developed envelope curves and models for efficient, safe and precise hydraulic structures design in SA.     

干旱地区内陆河流域水文问题的研究实践与展望

过去，干旱地区内陆河流域水文研究主要偏重于山区水文，注重山区来水及径流分析，而很少涉及灌区问题和生态问题，对绿洲水文和荒漠水文的研究十分缺乏。以新疆为例，通过对干旱地区河流的基本特征和水文机理的分析研究，从径流形成、水资源开发利用、生态环境保护三位一体，即从全流域水文循环的角度出发，提出了以山区水文、绿洲水文、荒漠生态水文为三大构成要素的干旱地区内陆河流域水文系统的新概念，并基于干旱地区内陆河流域水文问题的研究实践，提出了各自领域的研究内容和方向，进一步拓宽了水文问题的研究领域，对水文学科的研究与发展提出了新的思路，注入了新的内容。     

Hydro-mechanical evaluation of soil stabilized with cement-kiln dust in arid lands

This study evaluates the potential use of cement-kiln dust (CKD), a waste product from the cement industry, for enhancing the mechanical as well as the hydraulic properties of soils in arid lands. Stabilized products will play a major role in reducing slope failures, pavement damage and the design of containment barriers for hazardous waste in arid lands. Various tests to determine the different physical properties of the stabilized matrix were conducted and the optimum mixture that produces maximum internal energy and minimum hydraulic conductivity was selected. The effect of soaking and unsoaking of the treated specimens on the mechanical properties was also evaluated. The effect of metal ion concentration and conjugate anions on the resultant hydraulic conductivity was evaluated. The optimum percentage of CKD was calculated by using stress-strain data, Newton's divided difference and Simpson's integration technique. The analyses have shown that 6% by weight of CKD is the optimum mix design, which increases the shear strength and decreases the hydraulic conductivity to less than 10^-9 m/s. Therefore, the treated soil could be used as a soil-based barrier layer for containment of hazardous waste.     

Risk analysis for flood-control structure under consideration of uncertainties in design flood

This study presents a risk analysis model to evaluate the failure risk for the flood-control structures in the Keelung River due to the uncertainties in the hydrological and hydraulic analysis, including hydrologic, hydraulic, and geomorphologic uncertainty factors. This study defines failure risk as the overtopping probability of the maximum water level exceeding the levee crown, and the proposed risk analysis model integrates with the advanced first-order and second-moment (AFOSM) method to calculate the overtopping probability of levee system. The proposed model is used to evaluate the effects of the freeboard and flood-diversion channel on the flood-control ability of the levees in the Keelung River, which were designed based on the 3-day, 200-year design rainfall event. The numerical experiments indicate that the hydrologic uncertainty factors have more effect on the estimated maximum water level than hydraulic and geomorphologic uncertainty factors. In addition, the freeboard and the flood-diversion channel can effectively reduce the overtopping probability so as to significantly enhance the flood-control capacity of the levee system in the Keelung River. Eventually, the proposed risk analysis successfully quantifies the overtopping risk of the levee system under a scenario, the increase in the average 200-year rainfall amount due to climate change, and the results could be useful when planning to upgrade the existing levee system.     

Impact of river network type on the time of concentration

Time of concentration (T _c) is one of the frequently used parameters to characterize the response of a drainage basin to a rainfall event. Conceptually, it is the time runoff travels from the hydraulically most distant location in a basin to its outlet. T _c was found to vary depending on river basin characteristics such as slope, soil infiltration, and flow path. In this study, we investigate if the drainage network type information can be used as an input to hydrological models, by estimating the time of concentration separately for different network types. Sixty-eight basins which have areas ranging from 24 to 965 km² in arid and non-arid regions of the USA are compared and the effect of climate is also analyzed. It is found that the slope of the linear relationship between T _c and the maximum hydraulic length of flow path shows different correlation coefficients ranging from 0.80 to 0.98 for different network types. It is observed that the slope of the regression line between T _c and the maximum hydraulic length of flow path is the lowest for dendritic networks (slope of 0.26), while pinnate networks have the steepest slope of the regression line (slope of 0.59). This indicates that the drainage network type has a direct impact on the hydrological behavior of the basin and can represent a direct input in hydrological modeling.     

Modeling hydrologic responses of the Zwalm catchment using the REW approach: propagation of uncertainty in soil properties to model output

The research presented in this paper focuses on the application of a newly developed physically based watershed modeling approach, which is called representative elementary watershed approach. The study stressed the effects of uncertainty of input parameters on the watershed responses (i.e., simulated discharges). The approach was applied to the Zwalm catchment, which is an agriculture-dominated watershed with a drainage area of 114 km² located in East Flanders, Belgium. Uncertainty analysis of the model parameters is limited to the saturated hydraulic conductivity because of its high influence on the watershed hydrologic behavior and availability of the data. The assessment of output uncertainty is performed using the Monte Carlo method. The ensemble statistical watershed responses and their uncertainties are calculated and compared with measurements. The results show that the measured discharges fall within the 95% confidence interval of the modeled discharge. This provides the uncertainty bounds of the discharges that account for the uncertainty in saturated hydraulic conductivity. The methodology can be extended to address other uncertain parameters as far as the probability density function of the parameter is defined.