青藏高原中部聂荣半干旱草地夏季近地层能量平衡与输送分析

利用青藏高原中部聂荣地区草地下垫面2014年7~8月近地层气象要素梯度观测及湍流观测数据,分析讨论了该地区观测期间的基本气象要素特征、能量平衡特征以及能量输送特征,主要结论如下:(1)向下、向上短波辐射和净辐射日变化规律一致,向下、向上长波辐射日变化平缓。反照率呈"U"型分布,早晚大,中午小,聂荣夏季地表平均反照率为0.20。(2)在夏季白天,聂荣地区净辐射大部分以潜热的形式加热大气。考虑了土壤浅层热储存和垂直运动引起的平流输送后,能量闭合率由0.65提高到0.80,闭合率有显著的提高。(3)在不稳定层结下,动量总体输送系数CD平均值为4.7×10~(-3)和热量总体输送系数CH平均值为3.5×10~(-3);在稳定层结下,CD平均值为3.4×10~(-3),CH平均值为1.8×10~(-3);C_D和C_H在近中性层结下的平均值分别为4.30×10~(-3)和2.39 10~(-3)。     

塔克拉玛干沙漠人工绿地与自然沙地能量收支差异研究

利用2013年塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地自然沙地与人工绿地的地表太阳辐射和能量通量观测数据，分析不同下垫面太阳辐射分量和能量收支参数间的差异。结果表明：1）沙地与绿地，辐射各分量日变化特征显着，DR、UR夏季为峰值，冬季-春季-夏季为上升趋势，夏季-秋季-冬季为下降趋势。沙地与绿地ULR的差值为-30-20W?m-2。土壤湿度变化是导致人工绿地与自然沙地地表反照率差异的主要原因之一，在塔克拉玛干沙漠的人工绿地滴灌，增加了土壤含水率，传递到表层具有滞后效应，影响了地表反照率的月变化。2）净辐射，在夜间以G0耗能形式为主，而白天以H耗能形式为主。在塔克拉沙漠大环境影响下，人工绿地的能量分配格局与自然沙地基本相同，但是在植被的生长季与茂盛季节，LE的通量的耗能份额会有所递增，耗能比增加了1.5%。3）人工绿地EBR夜间的波动幅度大于自然沙地，白天自然沙地EBR上升速率要大于人工绿地冬季，自然沙地和人工绿地不闭合率都超过50%，其他季节，人工绿地的不闭合率优于自然沙地。     

塔中地面加热场强度变化特征分析

利用塔克拉玛干沙漠大气环境综合观测试验站塔中西站10 m梯度自动气象站2009年1、4、7、10月观测数据,基于土壤的一维热扩散方程计算四季自然沙地下垫面的地表土壤热通量和地面加热场强度,从而分析沙漠下垫面的地面加热场强度变化特征。结果表明:(1)春季和夏季地表土壤热通量日总量为正值,热通量方向向下,沙层相对大气是热汇,秋季和冬季则相反;日较差最大值出现在秋季,最小值出现在冬季;除冬季以外土壤热通量只占净辐射通量的很小一部分;(2)1、4、7、10月地面加热场强度分别为-33.20～87.39 W/m~2、-36.92～274.16 W/m~2、-7.59～244.78W/m~2、-24.90～170.42 W/m~2,地面加热场强度日平均值均为正值,地面为热源,夏季最强,春季次之,冬季最弱;(3)与大气相较,白天地面为强热源,夜间为弱冷源,春季地面加热场强度峰值出现在12时(地方时),夏季、秋季、冬季均出现在13时(地方时)。因此,塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地地面加热场强度具有独特的日变化和季节变化特征。     

塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地地表辐射和能量平衡及小气候特征

利用塔克拉玛干沙漠大气环境综合观测试验站——塔中站2014年30 min步长实测数据,系统分析塔克拉玛干沙漠腹地地表辐射和能量平衡特征及小气候特征。结果表明:塔中地区辐射平衡和能量平衡各分量均表现为春、夏季较大,秋、冬季较小,并具有明显的日变化特征,峰值出现在12:00(地方时,下同)左右。该地区地表能量通量(净辐射通量、感热通量、潜热通量和土壤热通量)中,净辐射、感热通量和土壤热通量均在08:00开始上升,至14:00左右达到峰值,而潜热通量变化很小。感热通量为能量的主要消耗形式,春、夏、秋、冬四季分别占净辐射的百分比为44. 6%、68. 1%、55. 2%和55. 3%,其次为土壤热通量,仅有很少能量用于水的相变。云和沙尘对能量通量各分量有明显削弱作用。近地层空气温度白天随高度的增加降低,夜晚则随高度的增加升高,空气相对湿度也呈明显变化规律。近地层水平风速随高度增加明显增大,风向以东北风为主。     

北京大气甲烷季变化及发展趋势

近年来北京大气中CH4含量仍在上升,但平均增长率已从1985～1989年的1.76%.a-1,下降到1990～1997年的0.50%.a-1;冬季和夏季两次出现峰值,表现出明显的双峰模态季节变化。但北京大气CH4变化的最大特点是年际季变化不均一,12年中,北京大气CH4共计增长185×10-9混和体积比,其中冬季增长的贡献为69×10-9混和体积比,约占总增长的37%;而夏季的增长贡献不足40×10-9混和体积比,约占总增长的21%。90年代以后,北京大气CH4增长率进一步减慢,主要原因是生物源排放不再增加,而非生物源排放量的增长是大气CH4继续增长的主要原因。     

黄土高原半干旱草地近地层湍流温湿特征及总体输送系数

利用兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测站(简称SACOL站)2008年夏季晴天近地层湍流观测资料,分析了SACOL站近地层湍流温、湿统计特征,确定了大气动力学和热力学粗糙度长度,讨论了总体输送系数随大气稳定度的变化规律。结果表明,大气层结不稳定条件下,无量纲温度和比湿脉动方差与稳定度Z/L之间均满足-1/3次规律;大气层结稳定条件下,温湿脉动方差总体趋势是随大气稳定度增加而减小。水汽通量全天大于零,最大值为0.063 g·m-2·s-1,地表日平均蒸发量为1.9 mm。中性条件下,黄土高原半干旱草地动力学粗糙度长度为6.6×10-3m,热力学粗糙度为1.85×10-5m。大气层结不稳定条件下,CD平均值为4.4×10-3,CH平均值为3.9×10-3;中性条件下,CD和CH平均值分别为4.2×10-3和2.8×10-3;层结稳定条件下,CD平均值为3.1×10-3,CH平均值为2.1×10-3,表明总体输送系数随稳定度的增大而减小。     

黑河下游鼎新戈壁近地层能量输送及微气象特征

利用在甘肃酒泉金塔地区进行的"绿洲系统能量与水分循环过程观测与数值研究"野外试验2005年5月16~21日的加强期观测资料,计算并分析了鼎新戈壁下垫面地表辐射平衡、地表能量平衡、地表空气动力学粗糙度、地表反射率以及动量、热量总体输送系数等物理量的变化特征,得到了鼎新戈壁下垫面近地层能量输送及微气象特征:(1)在5月份晴天天气下,太阳辐射各分量表现出了标准的地表辐射平衡的日循环形态,总辐射峰值可达1000 W.m-2以上;净辐射峰值达到526 W.m-2。(2)能量平衡各项都具有明显的日变化规律;白天感热通量最大值可达到400 W.m-2,潜热通量比感热通量小两个量级,地热流量峰值可达100 W.m-2以上;在下午和夜间存在负的水汽输送现象。(3)在中性条件下:z0=1.44×10-3m,CDN=2.1×10-3,CHN=1.8×10-3。(4)5月份地表反射率为0.217,反射率日分布大致呈"U"型。     

东北半干旱地区夏季能量水分传输过程分析

利用2015年8月锦州气象站的观测资料和中国地面气候资料日值数据集(V3.0),分析东北半干旱地区夏季能量水分传输过程。结果表明:锦州地区8月两次降水过程对近地面气象要素造成的差异较为明显。锦州站2 m气温和比湿都具有明显的日变化特征,较深层土壤升温与浅层土壤升温相比存在滞后效应。8月锦州站的CO2通量平均值为-0.17 mg/(m2·s),表现为"碳汇"。陆—气之间的能量交换主要依赖于水汽相变所传输的能量。地表反照率的日变化趋势大致为"U"型。潜热通量和感热通量平均值分别为71.9、29.7 W/m2。强烈的向下短波辐射使土壤和地表增温,同期降水量也偏少,是2015年夏季该地区出现的干旱的主要原因。能量不平衡的现象普遍存在,在考虑能量平衡时,考虑土壤热储量情况下的能量闭合率比不考虑时高2%～3%,夜间数据可以忽略。云量的增多会降低能量闭合程度。     

黄淮海平原典型冬小麦农田生态系统能量平衡研究—以封丘地区为例

本文以位于黄淮海平原的中科院封丘农业生态试验站冬小麦农田生态系统为研究对象,基于2013年10月至2014年6月涡度相关和自动气象站观测资料,利用涡度相关法和相关性分析法对黄淮海平原典型冬小麦各生育期的能量平衡特征进行了分析,揭示冬小麦农田环境气象要素与各分支通量之间的相关关系。结果表明:黄淮海平原典型冬小麦各生育期能量分配的特征不同,出苗期潜热仅占净辐射的40%,拔节期和抽穗期潜热占净辐射的比重均高达80%以上,其他生育期潜热占净辐射的比重均为55%以上。播种期和出苗期显热通量占净辐射的比重最大,均可达50%以上;分蘖期及其后生育期显热通量占净辐射的比重均为35%及以下,拔节期和抽穗期显热通量占净辐射的比重最小,仅为10%左右;随着冬小麦的生长,显热通量占净辐射的比重基本呈下降的趋势。冬小麦各生育期土壤热通量的区别不明显,越冬期土壤热通量占净辐射的比例为15%,其余各生育期土壤热通量占总能量的比例均为10%以下。冬小麦各生育期的能量闭和度均较高,出苗期能量闭合度为83%,分蘖期能量闭合度为90%,返青期以后生育期的能量闭合度均为90%及以上。2013—2014年封丘地区冬小麦各生育期气温与各通量之间呈正相关关系,相对湿度与各通量之间呈负相关关系;冬小麦生育期土壤温度与土壤热通量之间的相关系数为0.5左右,土壤温度与净辐射、潜热、显热之间无显著相关性;土壤含水量在冬小麦播种期、返青期与各通量的相关系数均为-0.5,其他生育期土壤含水量与各通量无明显相关性。     

青藏高原东缘峨眉山地区冬季地表能量交换特征研究

利用青藏高原东缘峨眉山站2018年11月至2019年2月的观测数据,分析了峨眉山地区近地层气象要素的变化特征,并运用涡动相关法、土壤温度预报校正法(TDEC)和最小二乘法等,讨论了地表能量交换特征,并与藏东南丹卡站和排龙站进行对比分析。结果表明:在峨眉山地区冬季感热通量占主导。地表辐射各分量日变化均呈单峰结构,短波辐射的峰值在峨眉山地区于13:00(北京时,下同)左右出现,而长波辐射到达峰值的时间段要晚于短波辐射,在14:00左右出现。地表反照率月变化明显,日变化呈"U"型,即日出后和日落前较大,日间较小的趋势,但在日出后和日落前的值并不相等。峨眉山站冬季地表反照率均值为0.29。峨眉山区域地表能量不闭合现象十分显著,日间和夜间的能量闭合程度差异很大。在考虑地表0～5 cm处的热量储存的条件下,白天闭合程度最好为67.22%,夜间闭合程度最差为65.09%。与藏东南丹卡站和排龙站对比分析表明:丹卡、排龙站地表辐射各分量达日峰值时间晚于峨眉山站。峨眉山站冬季的地表反照率高于丹卡、排龙站,月变化更加显著。峨眉山属于青藏高原东缘地区,其地表能量闭合程度大于青藏高原上部分站点。     

南京地区太阳能屋顶缓解夏季高温的模拟研究

太阳能屋顶的安装预计能在一定程度上缓解城市化带来的能源危机及对城市热环境的破坏。利用耦合了城市单层冠层方案（UCM）的WRF模式,以南京2010年7月27日至8月5日夏季晴天微风天气为背景,模拟了不同发电效率的太阳能屋顶的安装对城市高温的缓解效应。结果表明:（1）太阳能屋顶可以通过削弱到达城市表面的太阳辐射使城市2 m高气温降低,随着发电效率的提高,降温效果更明显,且白天降温效果明显优于夜间;白天2 m高气温最大降低0.4-1.3℃,夜间降低0.2-0.5℃。（2）太阳能屋顶可使边界层内气温降低,白天在边界层400 m以下降温显著,夜间在边界层高度200 m以下降温显著;白天边界层内最大降温出现在中午前后,降温0.1-0.8℃,夜间边界层内最大降温0.5℃。（3）发电效率为40%时,模拟期间的发电量为18.1×109 kW·h。      

Characteristics of the precipitation over the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau

Variations of precipitation over the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau are analyzed by using data over station Yaan including daytime, nighttime, and daily-mean precipitation and satellite-derived information. A comparison of some features over Yaan and other stations is also carried out. Over Yaan, light-moderate precipitation contributes significantly to both the number of rainy days (96.9%) and the amount (66.9%) of total precipitation. The light-moderate precipitation occurs more frequently at nighttime than at daytime (by 44.5 days, or 33.4%, and by 520.6 mm, or 134.4%, each year), and the nighttime precipitation is mainly in the form of light-moderate precipitation. The number of rainy days and the amount of total precipitation have decreased from the 1950s to the 1970s and during the recent 20 years, associated with negative trends of light-moderate precipitation. Similar features are also found in the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission satellite data. Local convective precipitation is the main form of the light-moderate precipitation over Yaan. The absorption of latent heat at the lower troposphere and the release of latent heat at the upper troposphere are larger at nighttime than at daytime by 1–2 times and 2–3 times, respectively. Both the peak value and the total release of latent heat over Yaan are significantly larger than those over the Tibetan Plateau, eastern China, and the western Pacific warm pool. These distinct local characteristics of the “rain city” Yaan are closely related to the interaction between the atmospheric circulation and the steep topography on the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau.     

Simulation of urban climate with high-resolution WRF model: A case study in Nanjing, China

In this study, urban climate in Nanjing of eastern China is simulated using 1-km resolution Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model coupled with a single-layer Urban Canopy Model. Based on the 10-summer simulation results from 2000 to 2009 we find that the WRF model is capable of capturing the high-resolution features of urban climate over Nanjing area. Although WRF underestimates the total precipitation amount, the model performs well in simulating the surface air temperature, relative humidity, and precipitation frequency and inter-annual variability. We find that extremely hot events occur most frequently in urban area, with daily maximum (minimum) temperature exceeding 36°C (28°C) in around 40% (32%) of days. Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect at surface is more evident during nighttime than daytime, with 20% of cases the UHI intensity above 2.5°C at night. However, The UHI affects the vertical structure of Planet Boundary Layer (PBL) more deeply during daytime than nighttime. Net gain for latent heat and net radiation is larger over urban than rural surface during daytime. Correspondingly, net loss of sensible heat and ground heat are larger over urban surface resulting from warmer urban skin. Because of different diurnal characteristics of urban-rural differences in the latent heat, ground heat and other energy fluxes, the near surface UHI intensity exhibits a very complex diurnal feature. UHI effect is stronger in days with less cloud or lower wind speed. Model results reveal a larger precipitation frequency over urban area, mainly contributed by the light rain events (< 10 mm d^?1). Consistent with satellite dataset, around 10?C20% more precipitation occurs in urban than rural area at afternoon induced by more unstable urban PBL, which induces a strong vertical atmospheric mixing and upward moisture transport. A significant enhancement of precipitation is found in the downwind region of urban in our simulations in the afternoon.     

中国4个国家级野外站大气CH4本底浓度变化特征

CH4是仅次于CO2的重要温室气体。2006年9月至2008年8月期间,按全球大气本底观测要求,在青海瓦里关、北京上甸子、浙江临安和黑龙江龙凤山4个国家级野外站开展每周一次空气样品flask瓶采样分析,获得了该地区为期2 a的大气CH4本底浓度资料。结果表明,2 a间瓦里关、上甸子、临安和龙凤山4站CH4浓度年均增幅分别为9.1×10-9、3.8×10-9、21.8×10-9和8.2×10-9;瓦里关站大气CH4浓度增长趋势与全球平均状况较为接近,能较好地反映北半球中高纬度内陆地区大气本底特征;但上甸子站年均本底值相对较低且季振幅偏小,而龙凤山和临安站季节变化规律相似,表现为CH4浓度冬季高而夏季偏低且季振幅较大。     

THE ENERGY BUDGETS UNDER DIFFERENT SYNOPTIC CONDITIONS OVER HUAIHE RIVER BASIN DURING HUBEX FIELD OBSERVATION PERIODS IN 1999*

In different synoptic conditions and at different time scales,the analysis of the energy budgets by Bowen Ratio Method and Bulk Schemes over Huaihe River Basin during the field observation periods of HUBEX in 1999 shows that,(1) the averaged latent heat flux is an order of magnitude more than the averaged sensible heat flux during the observation period:(2) the variation of totalcloud amount is out of phase with the terms of energy budgets except for the downward longwave radiation which maybe is related to the cloud's height and class:(3) the values of sensible and latent heat fluxes are small during rain episodes,but thereafter,the values become high and then up to maximum.It is similar to the other terms of the energy budgets except for the downward longwave radiation.The diurnal variation of energy budgets indicates that the daytime precipitation exerts great influence to the energy budgets,but the nighttime precipitation makes little influence;(4) the variation of the latent heat flux is in phase with the evaporation,which indicates that the latent heat flux calculated by bulk schemes is reliable:(5) the means of the sensible and latent heat flux and momentum flux by bulk schemes for the time period from May to August are,respectively,30.71W/m².116.81W/m².2.86×10^-2N/m² in 1998 and 30.28W/m²,107.35W/m²,2.74×10^-2N/m² in 1999.The values of these two years are similar.During summer in 1999 the magnitude and activity of sensible heat flux are strongest in June and those of the latent heat flux are in August.     

中国西北干旱区戈壁下垫面夏季的热力输送

以敦煌戈壁站2004年6月和2008年8月的常规观测和超声观测为例,分析了西北干旱区戈壁下垫面夏季热力输送的一般过程及特征。首先评价了湍流通量的观测质量以及仪器观测的地表能量通量闭合问题,结果表明敦煌戈壁站的观测在白天总体较好。夏季地表能量通量的平均日变化显示,潜热通量整天都很小,可以忽略,白天到达地表的短波辐射以及地表向上的长波辐射非常强,地表净辐射主要转化为感热输送（敦煌戈壁站在中午时平均分别达380W·m-2以上和250W·m-2以上）;夜间土壤释放热量以平衡地表的辐射冷却,感热通量略低于0。白天时地表大气经常触发自由对流活动,影响动量通量的观测质量,并有效输送地表热力至上层大气中,有助于形成超厚大气边界层。分析了戈壁下垫面的动量粗糙度特征和热力粗糙度特征（敦煌戈壁站动量粗糙度约为0．6mm）,热力粗糙度基本小于动量粗糙度一个量级,这符合目前对干旱区戈壁下垫面热力输送特征的初步认识。     

Variability of surface characteristics and energy flux patterns of sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) under well-watered conditions

There is not much information in the literature about the energy partitioning and micrometeorological features of sunn hemp. Therefore, in this study, the variations in the energy-balance components and plant characteristics such as aerodynamic and surface conductance, crop coefficient, albedo, short- and long wave down- and upward radiation have been measured and estimated for the time period from August to October 2004 over an irrigated sand field at the Arid Land Research Center in Tottori, Japan. The Bowen ratio energy-balance method was used to calculate the partitioning of heat fluxes of sunn hemp. The Bowen ratio values at the first growing stages in August were found to be higher than the Bowen ratio values at the latest growing stages in September and October because of the heavy rain and high soil-water content. The daytime averaged Bowen ratio was 0.19. During the measurement period, the daytime average net radiation, and soil, latent and sensible heat fluxes were approximately 231, 28, 164, and 39 W m^–2, respectively. The net radiation and soil heat flux showed decreasing trends from the beginning to the end of the experiment period due to the atmospheric and crop growth conditions. The daytime averages of aerodynamic and surface conductance for sunn hemp were around 31 and 17 mm s^–1, respectively. Also, the daytime average albedo of sunn hemp was around 19%. Finally, the high precipitation amount due to typhoons, high soil-water content, low available energy and low vapor-pressure deficit lead to decreasing trend of the energy fluxes during the generative phase of sunn hemp.     

Temperature projection in a tropical city using remote sensing and dynamic modeling

Recent temperature projections for urban areas have only been able to reflect the expected change due to greenhouse-induced warming, with little attempt to predict urbanisation effects. This research examines temperature changes due to both global warming and urbanisation independently and applies them differentially to urban and rural areas over a sub-tropical city, Hong Kong. The effect of global warming on temperature is estimated by regressing IPCC data from eight Global Climate Models against the background temperature recorded at a rural climate station. Results suggest a mean background temperature increase of 0.67 °C by 2039. To model temperature changes for different degrees of urbanization, long-term temperature records along with a measureable urbanisation parameter, plot ratio surrounding different automatic weather stations (AWS) were used. Models representing daytime and nighttime respectively were developed, and a logarithmic relationship between the rate of temperature change and plot ratio (degree of urbanisation) is observed. Baseline air temperature patterns over Hong Kong for 2009 were derived from two ASTER thermal satellite images, for summer daytime and nighttime respectively. Dynamic raster modeling was employed to project temperatures to 2039 in 10-year intervals on a per-pixel basis according to the degree of urbanization predicted. Daytime and nighttime temperatures in the highly urbanized areas are expected to rise by ca. 2 °C by 2039. Validation by projecting observed temperature trends at AWS, gave low average RMS errors of 0.19 °C for daytime and 0.14 °C for nighttime, and suggests the reliability of the method.     

Regional simulations to quantify land use change and irrigation impacts on hydroclimate in the California Central Valley

In this study, the influence of land use change and irrigation in the California Central Valley is quantified using the Pennsylvania State University/National Center for Atmospheric Research fifth generation Mesoscale Model (MM5) coupled with the Community Land Model version 3 (CLM3). The simulations were forced with modern-day and presettlement land use types at 30-km spatial resolution for the period 1 October 1995 to 30 September 1996. This study shows that land use change has significantly altered the structure of the planetary boundary layer (PBL) that affects near-surface temperature. In contrast, many land-use change studies indicate that albedo and evapotranspiration variations are the key processes influencing climate at local-to-regional scales. Our modeling results show that modern-day daily maximum near-surface air temperature (Tmax) has decreased due to agricultural expansion since presettlement. This decrease is caused by weaker sensible heat flux resulting from the lower surface roughness lengths associated with modern-day crops. The lower roughness lengths in the Central Valley also result in stronger winds that lead to a higher PBL. The higher PBL produces stronger sensible heat flux, causing nighttime warming. In addition to land use change, cropland irrigation has also affected hydroclimate processes within the California Central Valley. We generated a 10-member MM5-CLM3 ensemble simulation, where each ensemble member was forced by a fixed volumetric soil water content (SWC) between 3% and 30%, at 3% intervals, over the irrigated areas during a spring?Csummer growing season, 1 March to 31 August 1996. The results show that irrigation lowers the modern-day cropland surface temperature. Daytime cooling is produced by irrigation-related evaporation enhancement. This increased evaporation also dominates the nighttime surface cooling process. Surface cooling and the resulting weaker sensible heat flux further lower the near-surface air temperature. Thus, irrigation strengthens the daytime near-surface air temperature reduction that is caused by land use change, and a similar temperature change is seen for observations over irrigated cropland. Based on our modeling results, the nighttime near-surface warming induced by land use change is alleviated by low-intensity irrigation (17%?<?SWC?<?19%), but such warming completely reverses to a cooling effect under high-intensity irrigation (SWC?>?19%). The land use changes discussed in this study are commonly observed in many regions of the world, and the physical processes identified here can be used to better understand temperature variations over other areas with similar land cover changes.