Rapid formation of rock varnish and other rock coatings on slag deposits near Fontana,California

Manganiferous rock varnish, silica glaze and iron skins have formed on 20- to 40-year-old slag piles near Fontana, southern California. Rapid rock-varnish formation is associated with an unidentified cocci bacterium that grows rapidly in culturing experiments, combined with the likelihood that Mn-rich solutions flow over slag surfaces. A new model is proposed for the formation of silica glaze, involving soluble Al-Si complexes and the nature of wetting films. Iron skins occur where runoff is concentrated, and where iron bacteria grow. Observations indicate: (i) substrate can be important in supplying Mn, as well as maintaining a stable surface and channelling runoff to microspots where varnish grows; (ii) ignorance of boundary layer pH/Eh conditions makes chemical-physical models of varnish formation speculative; (iii) the balance between cementation of recently nucleated varnishes and erosional shear stresses is poorly understood, but is probably an important limiting factor on varnish growth rates; and (iv) there must be at least two steps in biotic varnishing-accretion of Mn-Fe in casts, followed by cementation of clays by either in situ cast residue or Mn-Fe remobilized from casts. Varnish accretion may be limited by the rate at which both steps occur. Rapid development of readily distinguishable manganiferous rock varnishes at this post-1952 site highlights the danger of speculation on the ages of landforms based solely on the appearance of rock-varnish coatings.     

Insights into the formation of rock varnish in prevailing dusty regions

The characteristics of rock varnish from the Campo de Piedra Pomez (CPP, Andes Argentina) provides new insights into the development of rock varnish under severe dusty conditions. The CPP varnish has been analysed using SEM‐EDAX and Raman techniques. The rock coating is tens of microns in thickness and under the microscope shows a micro to cryptocrystalline appearance and a general granular texture. Silica (quartz, cristobalite and amorphous silica) is the main phase forming these coverings followed by Al, K and Na compounds. Minor Fe oxides and Mn oxides are the source for the orange (Fe) and brown (Fe and Mn) hues of the coating. The results obtained for the CPP coating show that desert varnish developed under dusty circumstances does not have the appearance of typical rock varnish. Textural characteristics include high crystallinity and granular arrangement of the components. Moreover the absence of typical microlaminations is related to the presence of aeolian mineral grains which inhibit their development. The main mechanism of formation of rock varnish under such environmental circumstances is the direct incorporation of aeolian mineral grains into the varnish. However, other physicochemical processes are also required to explain the formation of varnish components such as amorphous silica or iron oxides phases. Although the development of the desert varnish may act as a protector of the underlying pyroclastic rock, the extreme and persistent windy conditions in the CPP field are high enough to weather and erode not only the rock coating but also the original ignimbrite. As other warm desert sites on Earth, the CPP area can also be considered as possible terrestrial analogue to Mars. Some environmental attributes might be similar to those expected on the Martian surface and thus, textural similarities between the CPP varnish and the rock varnish‐like coating of Mars are likely. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Petrography and geochemistry of manganiferous rocks in the Mankwadzi area in the southern Kibi‐Winneba metavolcanic belt,Ghana: Implications for genesis of Mn formations in the Birimian of West Africa

Manganiferous rocks in the Mankwadzi area in the southernmost portion of the Kibi‐Winneba metavolcanic belt, one of several Mn occurrences in the Paleoproterozoic Birimian of Ghana, are hosted in hornblende schist and amphibolite. These rocks are, in places, intruded by hornblende dyke. In outcrop, the manganiferous rocks appear to be conformable with the host schist and amphibolite, are macroscopically dark, fine‐grained and structurally massive to distinctly banded. Observed alternating light and dark occasionally macro‐folded bands suggest post‐depositional deformation of both light and dark bands. Microscopic observations revealed that the light bands are dominantly Si‐rich and the dark bands mainly of opaque minerals. Whole rock analyses of the manganiferous rocks show high contents of MnO (16.75–27.4 wt%) suggesting that the opaque minerals are likely rich in Mn. The analyzed rock samples show moderate to strong enrichments in light rare earth elements compared to heavy rare earth elements. Whereas the manganiferous rocks show perceptibly negative Eu anomaly, host hornblende schist and hornblende dyke do not. Eu anomaly in amphibolite samples is, however, uncertain as the three samples analyzed gave positive, negative and no Eu anomalies. Based on the field characteristics, microscopic and geochemical features, we suggest that the Mn occurrence in the Mankwadzi area originated via sedimentary deposition and was later modified by metamorphism, hydrothermal and/or supergene processes similar to manganiferous occurrences at Nsuta and Tambao in the Birimian of West Africa.     

A note on the characteristics and possible origins of desert varnishes from Southeast Morocco. A reply to comments by R. I. Dorn

This reply to Dorn (1989) argues that a biotic origin is not the only way in which desert varnishes may be formed. It is suggested that a variety of initial conditions may result in similar end products. It is agreed that the dissimilar views of the authors may result from their different philosophies concerning the classification of Mn/Fe varnishes.     

天山北麓岩石漆显微层理层序的初步建立及其年代学意义

对天山地区的调查发现天山北麓有较好的岩石漆发育。利用特殊的超薄片磨制技术,在对100 个岩石漆超薄切片的显微影象分析对比后,初步建立了研究区内晚更新世以来岩石漆显微层理的标准层序,经过年代校正后,给出了该层序的大致年代控制。并对其在估计河流阶地、断层陡坎等地貌面时代方面的应用作了探讨     

天山北麓岩石漆显微原理层序的初步建立及其年代学意义

对天山地区的调查发现天山北麓有较好的岩石漆发育。利用特殊的超薄片磨制技术,在对１００个岩石漆超薄切片的显微影象分析对比后,初步建立了研究区内晚更新世以来岩石漆显微层理的标准层序,经过年代校正后,给出了该程序的大致年代控制。并对其在估计河流阶地,断层陡坎等地貌面时代方面的应用作了探讨。     

月球表层及月壳物质密度分布特征

月球表层与月壳岩石密度的横向与径向的变化,反映了月表及内部成分以及月球演化等特征.本文利用月球勘探者号伽马射线谱仪探测的月表Fe, Th与Mg元素分布数据,依据前人给出的元素含量与岩石类型的关系,对月球表层进行了岩性填图,并结合岩石样品与陨石的密度测试数据建立初始密度模型,采用铁元素与岩石密度的关系对其进行修正,从而建立了月表物质密度分布模型.基于嫦娥一号激光测高数据和日本SELENE计划发布的月球重力模型,计算出月球布格重力异常,进而反演得到月壳0~40 km深度范围内岩石平均密度分布模型.分析表明,大部分区域上,月壳至少月壳上部岩石成分主要以轻质的富含铝、钙、镁质的硅酸盐类岩石为主.由此推测,原始月壳极有可能是由轻质的、富含钙、镁质硅酸盐类岩石构成的全球性月壳.现今的玄武岩与克里普岩只是覆盖于原始的月壳之上的岩层,且厚度不大.     

A note on the characteristics and possible origins of desert varnishes from southeast Morocco

Two substrate-controlled varnish types were identified from arid southeast Morocco: (1) patchy varnish interspersed with ‘silica glaze’ on silicified limestone and (2) a complete varnish cover on partially-silicified limestone. Electron probe microanalysis was used in conjunction with scanning electron microscopy to investigate their chemical composition. In both instances, varnishes are predominantly silica and iron-rich with localized concentrations of manganese. Inorganic fixation of iron and manganese is the preferred explanation, with manganese and iron derived predominantly from external sources—possibly wind-blown dust. Some iron and silica may also be derived by outward migration from within the substrate, particularly on partially silicified limestone.     

Evidence of sub-vent biosphere: enzymatic activities in 308 °C deep-sea hydrothermal systems at Suiyo seamount,Izu–Bonin Arc,Western Pacific Ocean

A high-temperature deep-sea hydrothermal system related to dacitic arc-volcanism was drilled using a tethered, submarine rock-drill system as a part of the Archaean Park Project. The benthic multi-coring system (BMS) employed allowed for direct sampling of microorganisms, rocks and fluids beneath hydrothermal vents. The samples examined in this study were from sites APSK 05 and APSK 07 on the Suiyo Seamount of the Izu-Bonin Arc in the Pacific Ocean. Based on the vertical distribution of samples derived from this vigorous sub-vent environment, a model of deep-sea subterranean chemistry and biology was determined detailing optimal microbial activities. Deep-sea hydrothermal sub-vent core samples of dacitic arc-volcanism obtained at the Suiyo Seamount, Izu-Bonin Arc, Western Pacific Ocean were analyzed for acid and alkaline phosphatase enzymatic activities. Useful biomarkers of acid phosphatase (ACP) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) enzymatic activities were positively correlated against each other and was greatest at the partial middle core sequences; ACP and ALP activities determined were as high as 5.10 and 6.80 nmol/min/g rock, respectively. Biochemical indicators of ACP and ALP were consistent with the origin of biogenic amino acids occupied in the sub-vent region and microbial cell number in the fluid. The significant enzymatic activities demonstrated in this study provides crucial evidence that sub-vent regions represent part of the previously unknown extreme-environment biosphere, extending the known subterranean habitable spaces of, for example, extremophilic microbes. This boring trial was first example of discharging high temperature hydrothermal activities at the frontal arc volcanoes.     

Microchemistry of small desert varnish samples,western New South Wales,Australia

The chemistry of varnish scrapings from within and adjacent to rock engravings on sandstone outcrops in semiarid Australia was analysed using an electron microprobe (WDS mode). Small-area analyses were used to reduce potential contamination from identifiable within-varnish detrital grains and from substrate material. Ratios of (Ca + K):Ti were compared for rock engravings on older and younger rock surfaces, and between different engraving styles. Although ratios from varnish on the older surface were lower than for the younger surface, differences were not statistically significant. Sorting of analyses for potentially anomalous amounts of minor elements had little effect on the ranking of individual ratio values. Rankings of within-engraving ratio values were generally in accord with relative age expectations but differences between samples were not significant, with the chemical variability of varnish being high even without the contribution of discernible detrital inclusions. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cation migration in hydrothermal clays: The problem of mineralization criteria in gas-hydrothermal fluids of hydrothermal fields in Southern Kamchatka

Based on a comprehensive study of the hydrothermal clay layer that occurs in geothermal fields, the conditions of formation of cation composition in argillitized rocks are discussed. Under the influence of gas-water fluids and pore solutions, micro- and nano-mineral mixtures are formed in hydrothermal clays; these mixtures include crystalline, amorphous, and transitional mineral phases. A considerable role in their composition belongs to cations of several metals (Fe, Al, Ti, Na, Mg, Ca, K, Mn, and Ba), as well as Si, C, N, S, and volatiles (F^? and Cl^?). The sources of cations and other elements are unaltered host rocks, newly formed hydrothermal-metasomatic rocks, hydrothermal clays, salt deposits, siliceous, carbonate, and other sediments, as well as deep fluids. In the structures of geothermal anomalies and deposits the ??hydrothermal metasomatic rock??gas-water fluid??newly formed mineral chemical compounds?? united system is formed. Each of the elements of this system takes part in the transportation, accumulation, and redistribution of metals. This approach to studies of the geochemistry of present-day geothermal systems may serve as a foundation for developing criteria for the presence of mineralization in metasomatites, gas-hydrothermal fluids, and new mineral associations.     

Ferromanganese rock varnish in north Norway: A subglacial origin

A thin, dark brown rock varnish is described from ice-smoothed bedrock on the forefield of a glacier in North Norway. It occurs only in narrow strips (ca 100 mm or less wide) which run roughly parallel to the ice front and along the top edges of small treads of a series of bedrock steps. The varnish is hard, thin (< 10 μm) and consists of an iron/manganese deposit, greatly enriched in these elements compared with the composition of the underlying gabbroic bedrock. It is suggested that the varnish formation is due to localized changes in Eh/pH conditions in subglacial regelation ice and meltwater at the top of the bedrock steps. These changes may be due to CO₂ and/or O₂ degassing from water held at higher pressures under the ice than in cavities downstream where the ice is decoupled from the bedrock. Glacier retreat rates indicate that the varnish has remained exposed subaerially at the surface for about twenty years, and its restricted occurrence suggests that it is not of biological origin but rather is essentially authigenic. Possible subglacial origins for associated iron and silica precipitates are also suggested.     

Metallogenesis along a fossil oceanic fracture zone: Arakapas fault belt,Troodos Massif,Cyprus

The Arakapas fault belt, southern Troodos Massif, which is interpreted as a fossil oceanic fracture zone, contains a sedimentary and volcanic “fill” including basaltic lava breccias, volcaniclastic sandstones, intercalated Fe-rich mudstones, and minor Cu sulphide mineralisation. The volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks were produced by submarine weathering and gravity redeposition of basalt within the transform zone. In contrast, the Fe-mudstones predominantly originated as chemical precipitates from hydrothermal solutions generated by hydrothermal leaching of basalt by seawater. The rare earth elements, and some trace metals, including Co, Ni, Pb, V and Zr, are thought to have been incorporated from seawater into the ferruginous precipitates. Unusually high Fe/Mn ratios of the Fe-mudstones relative to most modern ocean-ridge sediments may reflect deposition in relatively oxygen-depleted waters on the floor of a major bathymetric depression created by the transform faulting; release of acidic thermal waters would have further suppressed Mn precipitation. Contrary to recent suggestions of metallogenesis along oceanic fracture zones, none of the major Cyprus cupriferous sulphide bodies lie along the fossil Arakapas transform zone.     

Paleoenvironmental conditions define current sustainability of microbial populations in Laguna Potrok Aike sediments, Argentina

Rainfall and geology of the catchment exert a dominant control on the trophic state of endorheic basins. River inflows and runoff provide nutrients, influencing primary productivity in the water column. Through time, paleoenvironmental conditions are recorded as variations within the sedimentary organic fraction. Thereafter, microbial populations settle and develop within sediments and lead to degradation processes as long as they remain active. However, their presence is generally not considered in Quaternary studies. The present study is based on the sedimentary record of the maar lake of Laguna Potrok Aike, southern Patagonia. We investigate the relationship between paleoenvironmental conditions and colonization of the corresponding sediments by microbes. Microbiological and geochemical analyses were combined to determine factors allowing microbes to sustain their activity over time. The study of Holocene sediments, containing dense and active microbial communities, provided means to evaluate the potential of microbial communities as agents of early diagenesis. We show that phosphorus released during organic matter degradation is essential for microbial growth. In highly colonized sediments, microbial communities appear capable of recycling the excreted ammonium, thus accounting for nitrogen fractionation toward high values in bulk sediment. Microbial activity in Laguna Potrok Aike still persists in 30 ka old sediments. Thus, we proposed that future lacustrine studies should include some microbial indicators to assess their impact in diagenetic processes.     

Dissolved trace elements in a nitrogen-polluted river near to the Liaodong Bay in Northeast China

Dissolved trace element concentrations (Ba, Fe, Mn, Si, Sr, and Zn) were investigated in the Haicheng River near to the Liaodong Bay in Northeast China during 2010. Dissolved Ba, Fe, Mn, and Sr showed significant spatial variation, whereas dissolved Fe, Mn, and Zn displayed seasonal variations. Conditions such as water temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen were found to have an important impact on redox reactions involving dissolved Ba, Fe, and Zn. Dissolved Fe and Mn concentrations were regulated by adsorption or desorption of Fe/Mn oxyhydroxides and the effects of organic carbon complexation on dissolved Ba and Sr were found to be significant. The sources of dissolved trace elements were found to be mainly from domestic sewage, industrial waste, agricultural surface runoff, and natural origin, with estimated seasonal and annual river fluxes established as important inputs of dissolved trace elements from the Haicheng River into the Liaodong Bay or Bohai Sea.     

Tafoni in the El Chorro area,Andalucia, southern Spain

Using a combination of field, laboratory and micromorphological evidence, this study examines tafoni (singular, tafone) in the El Chorro area of Andalucia, southern Spain, and makes inferences concerning the processes responsible for their formation. Twenty-five tafoni were randomly selected for field examination. The morphology of these cavernous rock domes is characterized by a helmet-shaped outer roof and an arched-shaped cavern, often with a partially overhanging visor; measurements of height, width and depth of the caverns revealed marked variations in size. The presence or absence of lichen cover, surface varnish, overhanging visor, cavern backwall stripes, rock flaking, weathering pits and cavern floor sediments was also noted. Surface hardness values, obtained using a Schmidt hammer, are relatively low but significantly higher on the outer roof of the tafoni than on the inner cavern walls. Analysis of sediment samples collected from the cavern backwalls and floors indicates predominantly sandy textures, alkaline pH values and some base cation enrichment. Micromorphological analysis of thin sections, prepared from undisturbed blocks, reveals large quantities of pore-filling cement, consisting mainly of calcite, mineral grains affected by weathering and pseudomorphic replacement, and dark, rounded nodules with a metallic appearance. In terms of their formation, different processes appear to act on different parts of the landform. On the outer roof surfaces, case hardening, resulting from near-surface cementation and surface varnish development, is dominant. On the inner cavern surfaces, however, core softening, resulting from granular disintegration and flaking, dominates. Exfoliation weathering, running water and wind deflation also appear to play an important role in tafone formation. A phased model of tafone evolution is proposed whereby the features pass through four phases of development–initiation, enlargement, amalgamation and degradation; in the study area there are examples of tafoni in each of these phases. Much of the evidence suggests that the tafoni are actively developing under current environmental conditions. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Migration and enrichment of trace elements of Lower Palaeozoic carbonate rock strata in Beijing

Analyses of trace elements of the Lower Palaeozoic carbonate rock strata in Beijing show that the contents of As, Hg, F increase from primary carbonate rocks to weathered carbonate rocks and from primary carbonate rocks to the soil coexisting with carbonate rocks, but the distribution regularity of S is not obvious. In the whole weathered stages, the sorption of As is mainly affected by Fe2O3. In soil Fe2O3 is also the main affecting factor of Hg enrichment. The main existing forms of Hg in primary carbonate rocks should simply be physical adsorption, coprecipitation and false isomorphous form between surface of carbonate rock and Hg. In soil the enrichment of F has little relationship with sul-fides and Fe2O3. In primary carbonate rocks, F is mainly absorbed by sulfides and clay minerals, etc. Weathered samples have closer genetic relationships with primary carbonate rocks. This also implies that weathered carbonate rocks have the close existing forms to that of primary carbonate rocks. In primary carbonate rocks FeS2 and FeS are the main forms of S, and sulfides have fixation effect on some heavy metals, whereas in weathered carbonate rocks and soil the fixation effect is weakened.     

大兴安岭中南段杜尔基地区早白垩世侵入岩岩石地球化学特征及构造环境

杜尔基地区处于大兴安岭中南段,区内中生代侵入岩广泛发育。八个样品K—Ar全岩法测年结果为100．15～120．29Ma,形成于早白垩世。岩石化学分析结果具有高硅、高钾、富碱、过铝、贫铁、镁、钙特征,属于碱性岩系列。稀土元素总量平均值为146．85μg/g,球粒陨石标准化曲线整体平缓右倾,显示富Rb,贫Sr、Ba特征,具有Eu负异常,微量元素具有明显的Sr、Ba、Ti负异常,反映了具有强烈分异的分离结晶作用存在,说明岩石形成于长期较稳定的构造背景,可能形成于非造山板内裂谷或热点地幔柱环境。     

Groundwater composition and recharge origin in the shallow aquifer of the Djerid oases,southern Tunisia: implications of return flow

Abstract

Major ions and stable isotopes in groundwaters of the Plio-Quaternary shallow aquifer of the Djerid oases, southern Tunisia, were investigated to elucidate the origin of groundwater recharge and the mineralization processes. It has been demonstrated that the groundwater composition is mainly controlled by the water–rock interaction, the encroachment of brines from the Chotts and the return flow of irrigation waters. The isotopically depleted groundwater samples suggest that the recharge waters derive from an old palaeoclimatic origin. However, the enriched groundwater samples reflect the presence of evaporated recharge water. Furthermore, the large negative deuterium-excess values indicate the effect of secondary evaporation processes, probably related to the return flow of irrigation waters pumped from the underlying aquifer.

Editor D. Koutsoyiannis; Associate editor E. Custodio

Citation Tarki, M., Dassi, L. and Jedoui, Y., 2012. Groundwater composition and recharge origin in the shallow aquifer of the Djerid oases, southern Tunisia: implications of return flow. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 57 (4), 790–804.     

Petrology of green polished stone axes of the Jomon period from the Sannai-Maruyama site,Japan, investigating the origin of source rock

Numerous green polished stone axes have been excavated from the Sannai-Maruyama site, one of Japan's largest archeological sites in the Jomon period (5.9–4.2 cal kyr BP). The axes are composed of weakly metamorphosed fine-grained volcaniclastic rock having a peculiar texture that includes numerous acicular actinolites growing in random directions within a quartz and albite matrix. Cobbles of Aotora stone found along the Nukabira River, Biratori town, southern Hokkaido, are the most likely raw material for these stone axes. Aotora stones have alternate bands of a soft dark-green picritic layer and a hard SiO₂-rich pale-green layer. The pale-green layer has a texture similar to the stone axes. Basaltic and picritic volcanic rocks of the Sorachi-Yezo Belt occupy the area along the Shidoni River, a tributary of the Nukabira River. Volcaniclastic rocks similar in texture, mineralogy, and bulk rock compositions to the Aotora stone are exposed in the area. These rocks underwent metamorphism under the actinolite-pumpellyite facies conditions. Their protolith is submarine hyaloclastic rocks that are intercalated with laminated picrite detritus. The stone axes, pale-green layers of Aotora stone, and those of the volcaniclastic rocks of the Shidoni River area all have high SiO₂ (~ 55 wt%), Cr (~ 840 μg/g), and Ni (~ 370 μg/g). The rare earth element patterns with abundant light rare earth elements and depleted heavy rare earth elements of stone axes were also consistent with the pale-green layers of the outcrop. These pale-green layers, interleaved with dark-green layers of picritic detritus, were the likely source rock of the stone axes. The high SiO₂ content in the pale-green layer caused the crystallization of quartz and albite in the matrix, which resulted in high-quality raw material for making stone axes.