Meteorological prerequisites of formation of severe wintertime air pollution episodes in Moscow

Large-scale and local weather conditions during severe wintertime air pollution episodes in the Moscow megalopolis are analyzed. Concentrations of CO, NO, and NO₂ obtained from the automated network of the atmosphere pollution control are used as tracers for atmospheric processes in the urban atmospheric boundary layer. It is shown that a high surface air pollution level in the city is formed at a weak wind in the lower atmosphere and only in the presence of a surface or low elevated temperature inversion. Temperature contrasts in the urban heat island generate the circulation that promotes air pollution in megapolis regions remote from large emission sources. It is supposed that in case of severe frosts the amount of anthropogenic heat in the megapolis sharply increases, promoting active turbulent mixing, thus preventing pollution accumulation in the surface air.     

北京夏季强热岛分析及数值模拟研究

应用北京地区20个常规地面气象站、2个自动气象站和中国科学院大气物理研究所325m气象铁塔的资料，对北京2003年7月热岛状况进行了统计分析，发现北京夏季夜间存在强热岛效应，夏季夜间存在强热岛效应的天数占到了1/3，强弱热岛天数合计占到了大约4/5。进一步分析7月1日强热岛特征及其气象影响因子，结果表明：夜间存在强热岛时，郊区所有测站的地面气温都要低于主城区地面气温，城市强热岛的高温中心在天安门和白家庄连线的主城区；白天日照充足的晴夜，日落后城区320m以下低层大气存在逆温和弱的风速，城区地面气温下降速率和幅度均远小于郊区，城市强热岛因此得以形成和维持。日出后至正午，北京北部郊区日照时间比城区长，郊区地面大气得到来自太阳辐射的能量多于城区，而太阳辐射的加热作用使城区低层大气逆温消失，大气稳定度减弱，并使郊区地面气温上升速率和幅度大于城区，最终导致夜间出现的强热岛减弱、消失。此外，应用MM5模式对强热岛进行了初步数值模拟研究，发现在MM5中考虑城市人为热和热储存，可以改善模式对热岛的数值模拟，表明城市人为热和热储存在夏季强热岛的形成中有重要作用。     

冬季城市边界层风场和温度场结构分析

本文根据沈阳地区大气环境容量研究中1984年12月所进行的观测,对沈阳城市边界层的流场和温度场结构做了分析。得出了冬季城市边界层的一些特征。当地面风速微弱时,热岛效应显著。边界层低层辐合抬升,在城市下风边缘可能出现反向气流。当风速较强时,城市的摩擦效应占优势,城市上风部分辐合抬升,下风部分辐散下沉。观测分析还表明,城市建筑对气流的阻滞作用可伸展到几百米的高度。夜间微风时,接地逆温层厚度可达200m,城市内边界层从上风边缘起开始发展,厚度可达100m。白天风力微弱时,重烟尘污染可导致城市冷岛,并推迟对流边界层的发展。     

复杂地形条件下城市热岛及局地环流特征的数值模拟

应用基于多层城市冠层方案BEP(Building Environment Parameterization)增加室内空调系统影响的建筑物能量模式BEM(Building Energy Model)方案的WRF模式,模拟研究重庆热岛的特征、成因以及局地环流对热岛形成的影响。文中共有两个算例,一为重庆真实下垫面算例,称之为URBAN算例,二为将城市下垫面替换为耕地下垫面的对比算例,称之为NOURBAN算例。结果表明:1)WRF方案模拟结果与观测2 m气温的对比吻合较好,误差主要出现在正午温度峰值和凌晨温度谷值处,由城市下垫面特性及城市内建筑分布误差引起。2)BEP+BEM方案较好地模拟出了重庆地区的热岛分布的空间和时间特征。重庆市温度的分布受地形和城市下垫面的双重影响,越靠近城区,温度的分布受城市化影响就越大,在海拔低处,温度就越高。3)城区立体三维表面对辐射的陷阱作用导致城市表面总体反射率小,向上短波辐射小于郊区约20 W/m~2。城市表面以感热排放为主,而郊区则表现为潜热的作用占主导。夜间城市地表储热以及空调废热向大气释放,是城市热岛形成的重要原因。4)模拟区域背景风场主要为东南风,局地环流呈现出越靠近山区风速越大、城市区域风速较小的特性,体现了城市密集的建筑群对低层大气流场的空气动力学效应,以及复杂山谷地形的山谷风环流特性。在市区的西侧和东南侧均有高大山脉阻挡,山脉对城市出流的阻碍作用、气流越山与绕流运动对城市热岛的形成有一定影响。     

Spatial variation of the evolution and structure of the urban boundary layer

The spatial variation of the nocturnal urban boundary-layer structure is described and the time variation of the mixing height, and the nocturnal inversion top and strength after sunrise is presented for urban sites located upwind, downwind, and near the center of the heat island, and at an upwind rural site. Observations were derived from high resolution temperature profiles obtained by a helicopter during 35 intensive morning experiments in St. Louis, Missouri.The nocturnal urban boundary layer increased in depth from the upwind edge of the urban area. Far downwind, in suburban and rural areas, a remnant of the urban boundary layer existed between a stable surface-based layer and an upper inversion that resembled the upwind rural inversion.The mixing height (base of the inversion) evolved in a parabolic manner after sunrise at the urban locations. A rise in the inversion top after sunrise at the urban locations is believed to be due to low-level convergence which caused the entire inversion layer to be lifted. Due to large horizontal temperature gradients associated with the urban heat island, cold air advection tended to counteract the urban-induced lifting effect by inhibiting mixing-height growth at urban locations upwind of the heat-island center. Advection also caused the maximum height and fastest growth rate of the urban mixed layer to be shifted downwind of the urban area with time. However, mean mixing-height growth rates at various urban locations did not differ significantly. The rural mixing-height growth rate was about twice as large as urban values for up to 3 hr after sunrise. Spatial differences in the mixing height became small near the time of inversion dissipation, which appeared to occur at about the same time at all locations.On assignment from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce.     

An analytical study on the urban boundary layer

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Effect Of A Heat Island On The Meteorology Of A Complex Urban Airshed

A three-dimensional mesoscale model was used to study the effect of an urban heat island in a relatively complex situation. A heat emission inventory was carried out for an urban airshed thatincludes sources such as motor vehicles, waste heat from industries and electricity consumption. To demonstrate the relative significance of anthropogenic heat flux and variant surface characteristics, three model simulations were conducted. In the first simulation, anthropogenic heat flux was ignored and non-variant surface properties were considered for the entire modelling domain. In the second simulation, variant surface characteristics were considered. While in the third simulation, gridded anthropogenic heat flux and variant surface characteristic were utilised. From these experiments, it was inferred that an additional source of heat in urban areas can substantially affect the wind and temperature regime under light wind conditions. During the day, the anthropogenic heat flux has minimum effect on the urban temperature, however it magnifies the intensity of the convergence near the urban areas.     

Numerical Modelling of Urban Heat-Island Intensity

A three-dimensional, non-hydrostatic, high-resolution numerical model was used toanalyse urban heat-island (UHI) intensity in an idealised but realistic configuration.The urban area was 20 km square and lay on flat land at about latitude 50° Nin a maritime climate. In the model the urban area was represented by anomalies ofalbedo, anthropogenic heat flux, emissivity, roughness length, sky-view factor (SVF),surface resistance to evaporation (SRE) and thermal inertia. A control simulationincluded all these factors and the resultant UHI structure, energetics and intensitywere validated against observations. The results also compared favourably withearlier simulations.A series of experiments was conducted in which successively one of the anomaliesthat represented the urban area was omitted from the control simulation so as toprovide the basis for an assessment of its effect. In daytime the individual effectsdue to albedo, anthropogenic heat, emissivity, SVF and thermal inertia ranged from0.2 to 0.8 °C. In common with albedo, anthropogenic heat, emissivity andSVF, the SRE aided the formation of a UHI; it was also the most important factorin increasing its intensity. The roughness length had the opposite effect. At nightemissivity, roughness length, SVF and SRE had effects ranging from 0.3 to0.75 °C, but the largest effect (2 °C) was due to the anthropogenicheat. These results showed a difference in the causes of daytime and nighttime UHIs.In daytime the roughness length and SRE were the most important factors affectingUHI intensity; at night the anthropogenic heat was the most important. The simulationssuggested that the size of the urban area had a minimal effect on UHI intensity.     

珠江三角洲秋季大气边界层温度和风廓线观测研究

根据2004年10月珠江三角洲3个代表性观测点大气边界层观测资料, 分析了珠江三角洲秋季大气边界层温度和风廓线特征。结果表明:珠江三角洲秋季气温递减率较低, 逆温出现频率较高, 强度较弱, 海风使珠江口贴地逆温的出现时间推迟、低空逆温的出现频率增加。珠江三角洲秋季受多种局地环流影响, 边界层内风廓线比较复杂, 晚上城市群与非城市群地区风向有明显差别; 城市群和珠江口多次分别观测到城市热岛环流和海风环流。     

“Heat island” in a humid tropical city and its relationship with potential evaporation

Summary Not much is known about the extreme conditions of urban temperature in tropical cities. Also, the concept, heat-island has been hardly related to the other climatic parameters that have some links with temperature. In view of the points mentioned above, this study examined the maximum temperature records as well as the conditions of temperature at 1000 and 1600 Local Zone Time (LZT). The results revealed that for the humid tropical city of Ibadan, heat islands was best indicated by the minimum temperature. Also, some level of relationship was found to exist between heat island and urban/rural difference in potential evaporation.With 6 Figures     

An advective boundary-layer model applied to Sydney,Australia

It is shown with simple two-dimensional advective models that artificial heat generation in the Sydney area, on early mornings in July, is largely responsible for the downwind temperature increase over the city. The models predict the height of the mixing layer and also the temperature increase downwind which agrees favourably with observations. The models require the following information: (1) average wind speed, (2) lapse rate difference between the stable upwind atmosphere and the air layer over the city, (3) the upwind surface temperature, (4) the vertical thermal diffusivity upwind, and (5) artificial heat generation. Data on energy use in the Sydney area have been presented elsewhere. A sensitivity analysis has been performed to study the interaction between the input parameters and their role in modifying the city's atmospheric boundary layer.     

Mean temperature and mean concentration distributions over a physically modelled three-dimensional heat island for different stability conditions

Results of flow visualization, and the mean temperature measurements over a physically modelled three-dimensional heat island in a wind tunnel capable of simulating stratified atmospheric boundary layers are presented. Concentration measurements of Kr85 released from an upwind two-dimensional continuous line source show good correlation with flow visualization and mean temperature distributions. The results indicate the unique features of three-dimensional flow over a heat island - lateral low-level convergence, upward vertical motions, and upper-level horizontal divergence.     

NUMERICAL EXPERIMENT ON THE EFFECT OF URBANIZATION UPON SUMMER LAND-SEA BREEZES IN THE COASTLAND OF GUANGXI

The 2003–2006 observations were utilized to analyze the surface characteristics of summer land-sea breezes along the coastland of Guangxi and the Weather Research and Forecast model was applied to simulate the breeze structure on August 1–2,2006.Results show that 1) the intensity and distributions of the breezes reproduced from improved urban underlying surface were close to observations.In the daytime the coastwise urban band was a convergent belt of sea breeze,corresponding to the centers of torrential rains;in the nighttime hours the surface of the Gulf of Tonkin (the Vietnamese name) or the Northern Bay (the Chinese name) acted as a convergent zone of land breezes,likely to produce convective cloud cluster;2) the experiment on urbanization showed the heat island effect enhancing (weakening) the sea (land) breeze development.Furthermore,the heat island effect mitigated the atmospheric cooling via radiation over the cities in the night,weakening sinking motion correspondingly,thereby suppressing the dominant factor responsible for the steady development of temperature inversion.As a result,the inversion vigor was reduced greatly,but nevertheless no strong effect of the decreased subsidence was found upon the inversion height.     

基于Landsat TM/ETM+数据的南昌城市热岛效应研究

利用Landsat TM/ETM+数据进行南昌市地表温度反演,得出1989年和2000年2个时相的南昌市热岛强度等级分布特征,结合下垫面土地覆盖类型图,选取样区对比分析了地表温度空间分布.结果表明:南昌市存在比较明显的热岛效应,主城区的地表温度由城区中心向近郊、远郊逐渐降低,城市地表温度与下垫面的性质紧密相关.研究结果对于改善南昌城市生态环境、减缓城市热岛效应具有重要的参考价值.     

人为热对城市边界层结构影响研究

为研究不同人为热源引入方案对城市边界层结构模拟性能的影响，以杭州地区为例，在区域边界层模式（RBLM）中引入一种新人为热源处理方案，即对城市中的人为热排放分层考虑，将低层的人为热源加入地表能量平衡方程，将高层人为热源分布与建筑物高度和密度联系起来，加入热量方程中，同时考虑了人为热源强度的日变化。数值试验结果表明，这是一种比较合理的处理方案。人为热源引入方案对城市边界层结构的影响表现在:气温、湍流动能增加，并通过湍流交换输送到较高层大气；大气不稳定度增加，混合层高度最高抬升了400 m；城市地区上升速度增加，热岛环流加强；白天人为热源一般为太阳辐射的10%～20%，对地气交换的影响较小。夜间没有了太阳辐射能量，对地气交换的影响比日间更明显；冬季低层湍流活动加强，湍能约增加40%，大气层结稳定度降低。     

郑州城市气候环境的观测研究

通过对郑州城市环境气候观测资料分析 ,揭示了郑州市区环境温度的季节分布、不同性质地面环境对温度分布的影响及郑州城市热岛强度的时空变化特点。结果表明 :郑州城市建设规模及其特殊的地面物理性质 ,对气候环境已产生较明显的影响 ,年、季环境温度分布都以市中心温度为高 ,向郊区逐渐降低 ,存在着明显的城市“热岛”现象 ;郑州城市热岛强度的年、季变化与我国北方城市的变化趋势比较一致 ,具有冬强夏弱的特点     

A numerical study of the marine stratocumulus cloud layer

A one-dimensional grid-level model including longwave radiative transfer and a level-4 second-order turbulent transfer closure which contains prognostic equations for turbulent quantities, is used to study the physics and dynamics of inversion-capped marine stratocumulus clouds.A set of numerical experiments had been performed to examined the role of sea surface temperature, large-scale vertical velocity, wind speed, and vertical wind shear in the formation and the structure of low-level clouds. For a given sea surface and geostrophic wind speed, stratocumulus clouds can grow higher with smaller large-scale subsidence as less dry air entrains into the cloud. Clouds grow higher with higher sea surface temperature for a given geostrophic wind speed and large-scale subsidence as a result of enhanced moist convection. In high wind speeds, the entire cloud deck is lifted up because of larger surface energy flux. In the budget studies of the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), the buoyancy term is a major source term when the wind speed and the vertical shear are small across the inversion top. When the wind speed and the vertical wind shear across the inversion top become large, the mixed layer is decoupled into a cloud and a subcloud layer. In the TKE budget studies, the shear generation term becomes an important term in the budgets of the TKE and the variance of vertical velocity.     

The urban boundary layer in Montreal

Horizontal and vertical sampling of the atmosphere has provided new information on the form of Montreal's urban heat island. The horizontal pattern under clear skies with light winds shows a major heat island, with marked gradients at the periphery, and a multicellular inner core. Retarded urban cooling rates in the evening yield a maximum heat-island intensity around midnight. Combined horizontal and vertical temperature surveys show that under conditions of strong rural stability, the lowest layers of the urban atmosphere become progressively modified as air moves toward the centre of the city. The change in the form of the potential temperature profile is in good agreement with Summers' internal boundary-layer hypothesis. In Montreal differing heights of heat and SO₂ emission appear to produce more than one internal layer. SO₂ observations, and heat input calculations reveal two major emission sources in Montreal; one associated with an industrial complex, and the other with the downtown core.     

基于多源融合资料分析北京一次超强城市热岛三维结构特征

城市热岛效应是人类活动对大气系统影响的最主要体现之一。本文利用(Space and Time Multiscale Analysis System, STMAS)时空多尺度分析系统,融合了地面自动站、雷达、卫星等多源高时空分辨率观测资料,建立了城市热岛三维数据集。并在此基础上统计了2021年北京夏季的城市热岛强度变化特征,选取其中一次超强城市热岛个例(2021年6月11—12日)详细分析了其三维精细化结构特征。结果表明：(1)本个例中,夜间郊区近地面迅速降温,形成逆温层;而城市近地面降温缓慢,使得近地面城郊温差不断增大。(2)本次超强城市热岛三维温度场暖心结构在地面和990 hPa以下低空等压面清晰可见,风场距平呈现气旋性环流特征并在低空从郊区向城区辐合,引起可到达中高空的上升运动,说明城市热岛效应有增强垂直环流的作用。     

成都地区城市化对气候影响的模拟研究

为了研究成都地区城市化对当地气候的影响,利用不同时期的下垫面土地利用类型数据和耦合单层城市冠层模型(UCM)的WRF（Weather Research and Forecasting）模式对成都夏季和冬季城市化效应进行了模拟研究,得到以下主要结论:1）成都地区城市化使夏季城区上空出现增温区域。城区地表气温升高约2.8°C,边界层高度升高约150 m,冬季地表气温平均升高约0.6°C,边界层高度升高约25 m。夏冬两季气温日较差均减小。2）受城市化影响,成都地区夏季和冬季2 m相对湿度减小,感热通量增加,潜热通量减小,且夏季变化程度强于冬季。3）城市化使地表的粗糙度增加,进而使夏季和冬季风速在城区减小,减小约0.1~0.6 m s?1,但夏季风速减小区域较冬季更大。城市化还使城市上空低层散度减小,辐合作用增强,垂直速度增大,夏季水汽往高层输送明显。4）夏季,城市化作用使日平均和白天时段降水量在城区的迎风区和下风区均增加,夜间降水量在下风区域增加,对迎风区域影响不明显。