Revegetation impacts on runoff generation processes in a typical loess catchment

Since 1999, large-scale ecosystem restoration has been implemented in the Loess Plateau, effectively increasing regional vegetation coverage. Vegetation restoration has significantly elevated the saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) of the near-surface soil layers and increased the vertical heterogeneity of the Ks profile. Many studies have examined the change of runoff due to revegetation, yet the impacts of Ks profile on the soil moisture distribution and runoff generation processes were less explored. In this study, numerical simulations were conducted to investigate how changes in the Ks profile caused by vegetation restoration influenced the hydrological responses at event scale. The numerical simulation results show that the increase of surface Ks caused by vegetation restoration can effectively reduce runoff at event scale. Moreover, the enhancement of vertical heterogeneity of Ks profiles can significantly change the vertical profile of soil water content, prompting more water to percolate into the deep soil layer. When rainfall exceeds a threshold, the accumulation of soil water above the relatively less permeable layer can cause short-term saturation in shallow soil layers, resulting in a transient perched water table. As a result, after the vegetation restoration in the Loess Plateau, though Horton overland flow is still the main runoff generation mechanism, there is a possibility of the emergence of Dunne overland flow under the high vegetation coverage (e.g., NDVI larger than 0.5). This emergence of new runoff generation mechanism, saturation excess runoff, in the Loess Plateau due to the vegetation restoration could provide scientific guidance for water and sediment movement, soil and water conservation practices, and desertification control in the Loess Plateau.     

Prediction of rainfall‐induced shallow landslides in the Loess Plateau,Yan'an,China, using the TRIGRS model

In this work, a transient rainfall infiltration and grid‐based regional slope‐stability model (TRIGRS) was implemented in a case study of Yan'an City, Northwest China. In this area, widespread shallow landslides were triggered by the 12 July 2013 exceptional rainstorm event. A high‐resolution DEM, soil parameters from in‐situ and laboratory measurements, water table depths, the maximum depth of precipitation infiltration and rain‐gauge‐corrected precipitation of the event, were used as inputs in the TRIGRS model. Shallow landslides triggered on the same day were used to evaluate the modeling results. The summarized results are as follows: (i) The characteristics and distribution of thirty‐five shallow landslides triggered by the 12 July 2013 rainfall event were identified in the study area and all were classified as shallow landslides with the maximum depth, area and volume less than 3 m, 200 m² and 1000 m³, respectively, (ii) Four intermediate factor of safety (F_S) maps were generated using the TRIGRS model to represent the scenarios 6, 12, 18 and 24 hours after the storm event. The area with F_S < 1 increased with the rainfall duration. The percentage of the area with F_S < 1 was 0.2%, 3.3%, 3.8% and 5.1% for the four stages, respectively. Twenty‐four hours after the rainstorm, TRIGRS predicted that 1255 grid cells failed, which is consistent with the field data. (iii) TRIGRS generated more satisfactory results at a given precipitation threshold than SINMAP, which is ideal for landslide hazard zoning for land‐use planning at the regional scale. Comparison results showed that TRIGRS is more useful for landslide prediction for a certain precipitation threshold, also in the regional scale. (iv) Analysis of the responses of loess slope prone to slope failure after different precipitation scenarios revealed that loess slopes are particularly sensitive to extended periods of heavy precipitation. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Erosion characteristics of loess tunnels on the Loess Plateau: A field investigation and experimental study

Loess tunnels are a common geo-hazard in the Loess Plateau and not only cause considerable soil and water loss, but also aggravate and even induce the occurrence and development of other disasters such as ground fissures, mudflows, collapses, and landslides. To date, research on the hydrological characteristics and erosion behaviour of loess tunnel systems has focused on field investigation data and limited river basin observation data, whereas field test information and data are very scarce. In this study, field surveys, observations, field scouring experiments, and laboratory-based sediment percentage tests were conducted to analyse the erosion characteristics, spatial distribution, and hydrological characteristics of a large-scale loess tunnel system in the hilly Loess Plateau southeast region of northern China. The results showed that the loess tunnel erosion exhibited periodicity. Tunnel erosion in each period shows a similar erosion process, that is, thin-layer water flow erosion and lateral expansion, tunnel wall collapse and deposit due to the loss of support from the lateral erosion, and erosion and transport of deposits by water flow. Waterfall erosion, lateral erosion, headward erosion, and the resulting collapses were the main forms of tunnel erosion. Besides this, the base level of erosion significantly affects the erosion characteristics of the loess tunnel. The hydrological characteristics during field scouring experiments exhibited three different stages: a lag effect, attributed to the temporary loss of water velocity in the first stage; small water flow fluctuations in the second stage; and an increase in total seepage loss with increased water injection flow in the third stage. The erosion rate was positively correlated with the flow quantity. The results of this study not only provide valuable reference data for research on the mechanism and velocity of erosion events in loess, but also provide a theoretical basis for the prevention of loess tunnel disasters in engineering construction. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mineral composition and particle size distribution of river sediment and loess in the middle and lower Yellow River

Hyperconcentrated flows often occur in the middle and lower Yellow River(MLYR)and its tributaries,within which the main sediment source originates from the Loess Plateau of China due to serious water erosion.Little is known about the properties of river sediment that is transported by hyperconcentrated flows,particularly with respect to the mineral composition and size distribution.Samples of sediment and loess were collected in the northern,middle,and southern Loess Plateau and the mainstream and tributaries of the MLYR.A total of 18 loess samples and 24 river sediment samples were analyzed to determine their sediment size distribution and mineral composition.The bottom loess samples reflected the original sedimentary features of the Loess Plateau,and the median particle size reduced,and the clay content increased from the north to the south of the study region.The surface loess has been weathered under the action of wind and rainfall,and the clay particle content in the surface loess samples was higher than that in the undisturbed bottom loess.Erosion of the surface soil due to rainfall and surface runoff means that fine particles(mostly clay)have been washed away.The median diameter of surface loess particles was a little larger than that of the bottom loess particles where water erosion dominates.The particle size became coarser with increasing distance from the estuary in the MLYR,which reflects depositional sorting in the river channel.Significant logarithmic relations were found between the median diameter of the sediment particles and the i)non-clay mineral content and ii)clay mineral content.Thus,clay and non-clay mineral compositions can be conveniently estimated from the particle size distribution.     

Loess erosion change modeling during heavy rainfall

A typical gully sub-basin with a complex geomorphological form is used to do a model test of gravity erosion of loess by considering the sequence of slopes in a prototype gully creating a sequence of underlying surface forms in the upper reaches. The results show that the runoff from heavy rainfall is the main external force for the erosion of loess, and also is an important influencing factor to stimulate and intensify the development of gravity erosion. The soil structure and the height of the...     

Spatiotemporal characteristics of precipitation and extreme events on the Loess Plateau of China between 1957 and 2009

Spatiotemporal trends in precipitation may influence vegetation restoration, and extreme precipitation events profoundly affect soil erosion processes on the Loess Plateau. Daily data collected at 89 meteorological stations in the area between 1957 and 2009 were used to analyze the spatiotemporal trends of precipitation on the Loess Plateau and the return periods of different types of precipitation events classified in the study. Nonparametric methods were employed for temporal analysis, and the Kriging interpolation method was employed for spatial analysis. The results indicate a small decrease in precipitation over the Loess Plateau in last 53 years (although a Mann–Kendall test did not show this decrease to be significant), a southward shift in precipitation isohyets, a slightly delayed rainy season, and prolonged return periods, especially for rainstorm and heavy rainstorm events. Regional responses to global climate change have varied greatly. A slightly increasing trend in precipitation in annual and sub‐annual series, with no obvious shift of isohyets, and an evident decreasing trend in extreme precipitation events were detected in the northwest. In the southeast, correspondingly, a more seriously decreasing trend occurred, with clear shifts of isohyets and a slightly decreasing trend in extreme precipitation events. The result suggests that a negative trend in annual precipitation may have led to decreased soil erosion but an increase in sediment yield during several extreme events. These changes in the precipitation over the Loess Plateau should be noted, and countermeasures should be taken to reduce their adverse impacts on the sustainable development of the region. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soil moisture response to rainfall on the Chinese Loess Plateau after a long‐term vegetation rehabilitation

The Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP) is a unique Critical Zone with deep loess deposits, where soil moisture is primarily replenished by seasonal monsoon rainfall. However, the role of vegetation, coupled with complex topography, on rainwater infiltration on the CLP, especially after long‐term revegetation for controlling erosion, is inadequately quantified. Over the growing season of 2016, we monitored soil moisture at the 30‐min interval at 5 depths (10, 20, 40, 60, and 100 cm) in an afforested catchment and a nearby catchment with natural regrowth of grasses. Two monitoring sites were established in each catchment, one in the downhill gully and the other in the uphill slope. We found that vegetation, topography, and rainfall attributes together determined rainwater infiltration and soil moisture replenishment. An accumulated rainfall amount of 9 mm was required to trigger soil moisture response at 10‐cm depth at the 2 grassland sites and the forestland uphill‐slope site whereas 14 mm of rainfall was required for the forestland gully site covered by dense undergrowth and trees. Rainfall events with larger sums and higher peak intensities permitted rainwater infiltration to deeper soil depths. However, no rain recharged soil moisture to 100‐cm depth during the monitoring period. The forestland uphill‐slope site showed the deepest wetting depth (up to 60‐cm depth), fastest wetting‐front velocity (up to 4 cm/hr below 10‐cm depth), and the most significant soil moisture increase (up to 15% cm ³ cm^?3 increase at 10‐cm depth) after rainfall in the growing season. The grassland gully site had the highest soil water storage, whereas soil moisture was depleted the most at the forestland gully site. Findings of this study reveal the transient dynamics of soil moisture after rainfall on the CLP, which signifies the role of revegetation on rainwater infiltration in the loess Critical Zone.     

Erosion-control mechanism of sediment check dams on the Loess Plateau

Severe soil erosion occurs on the Loess Plateau in China, which makes the Yellow River the most sediment-laden river in the world. Construction of about 60,000 sediment check dams has remarkably controlled soil erosion on the Loess Plateau and reduced the sediment load of the middle and lower Yellow River. Nonetheless, little is known about the mechanism of erosion control and vegetation development of sediment check dams. The function of a single check dam mainly is trapping sediment, while the function of a train of check dams comprising dozens of or over hundreds of check dams in a gully encompasses controlling bed incision and reducing erosion energy. A formula was proposed to calculate the potential energy of bank failure and slope failure in a gully, which essentially constitutes the erosion energy. The erosion energy increases when gully incision occurs, which is induced by the incision of the Yellow River and its tributaries on the Loess Plateau. Sediment deposition in many gullies due to construction of check dams reduces the erosion energy to almost zero, which in turn greatly reduces soil erosion and sediment yield. Construction of check dams promotes vegetation development. The vegetation-erosion dynamics model was used to study the effect of check dams on vegetation development. Simulation results show that reforestation without check dam construction might result in an increase of vegetation cover in the first ten years and then a drop of vegetation cover to less than 10% in the later years. The check dams provide a foundation for vegetation development.     

Effect of shrub-grass vegetation coverage and slope gradient on runoff and sediment yield under simulated rainfall

Evaluating the benefits of sediment and runoff reduction in different vegetation types is essential for studying the mechanisms of soil and water conservation on the Loess Plateau.The experiment was conducted in shrub-grass plots with nine levels of mixed vegetation coverage from 0%to 70%,three slopes(10
,15
,and 20
)and two rainfall intensities(1.0 and 2.5 mm/min).The results showed that the vegetation coverage and slope gradient significantly affect runoff and sediment yield.Shrub-grass vegetation coverage had a significant effect on the runoff start-time,runoff flow velocity,runoff rate,and soil erosion rate on hillslopes.Mixed vegetation coverage could effectively delay the runoff starttime and decrease the runoff flow velocity.However,the effects of the slope gradient on runoff and sediment yield are opposite to those of vegetation coverage.Shrub-grass vegetation coverage could effectively increase runoff and sediment yield reduction benefits,while their benefits were affected by the rainfall intensity.At the 1.0 mm/min rainfall intensity,the reduction in the sediment production rate was greater than that under the 2.5 mm/min intensity.However,when the shrub-grass vegetation coverage exceeded 42%,the runoff reduction benefit was more obvious at higher rainfall intensities.The cumulative sediment yield increased with increasing cumulative runoff,and the rate of increase in the cumulative runoff was greater than that of the cumulative sediment yield with increasing of shrub-grass vegetation coverage.Moreover,there was a power function relationship between cumulative sediment yield and cumulative runoff yield(P<0.05).Our paper is expected to provide a good reference on the ecological environment and vegetation construction on the Loess Plateau.     

FORMATION AND EROSION PROCESSES OF THE LOESS PLATEAU

IPROCESSANDZONINGOFLOESSACCUMULATIONLoessisatypicalkindofaeoliansediment,theprocessesofitsgeomorphicformationcanbesummarizedasfollows.l.lWell-distributedDustFalloutfromHighAltitudeThedustisdefinedasthefineparticles(<0.1mm)whichcanbeliftedandcarriedupasdustcloudsintheaiLIftheoriginallandsurfaceofaregionisanevenhighlandsurroundedbyriversandgullies,thefallingdustremainedonthesurfaceofthisevenhighland,butthedustfallingonslopesoftheriverandgullieswastransportedoutoftheregion.Onthet…     

The characteristics of soil water cycle and water balance on steep grassland under natural and simulated rainfall conditions in the Loess Plateau of China

Large-scale vegetation restoration has been helpful to prevent serious soil erosion, but also has aggravated water scarcity and resulted in soil desiccation below a depth of 200 cm in the Loess Plateau of China. To understand the dynamic mechanism of soil desiccation formation is very important for sustainable development of agriculture in the Loess Plateau. Based on natural and simulated rainfall, the characteristics of soil water cycle and water balance in the 0–400 cm soil layer on a steep grassland hillslope in Changwu County of Shaanxi Loess Plateau were investigated from June to November in 2002, a drought year with annual rainfall of 460 mm. It was similarly considered to represent a rainy year with annual rainfall of 850 mm under simulated rainfall conditions. The results showed that the temporal variability of water contents would decrease in the upper 0–200 cm soil layer with the increase in rainfall. The depth of soil affected by rainfall infiltration was 0–200 cm in the drought year and 0–300 cm in the rainy year. During the period of water consumption under natural conditions, the deepest layer of soil influenced by evapotranspiration (ET) rapidly reached a depth of 200 cm on July 21, 2002, and soil water storage decreased by 48 mm from the whole 0–200 cm soil layer. However, during the same investigation period under simulated rainfall conditions, soil water storage in the 0–400 cm soil layer increased by only 71 mm, although the corresponding rainfall was about 640 mm. The extra-simulated rainfall of 458 mm from May 29 to August 10 did not result in the disappearance of soil desiccation in the 200–400 cm deep soil layer. Most infiltrated rainwater retained in the top 0–200 cm soil layer, and it was subsequently depleted by ET in the rainy season. Because very little water moved below the 200 cm depth, there was desiccation in the deep soil layer in drought and normal rainfall years.     

EFFECTS OF SOIL CRUSTING ON SOIL MOISTURE, RUNOFF AND EROSION: FIELD OBSERVATIONS

1 INTRODUCTION Soil crusting, or soil sealing, is one of the common phenomena in agricultural lands or semi-arid and arid soils. Due to the breakdown of soil aggregates by raindrops, soil surface develops a very thin, often less than a few millimeters, dense layer. Many studies indicated that such a thin layer significantly reduces infiltration capacity and increases surface runoff (i.e. McIntyre, 1958; Edward and Larson, 1969; Agassi et al., 1985; Bradford et al., 1986; Romkens et al.,…     

岷县漳县6.6级地震典型滑坡特征及其诱发机制

地震和降雨是滑坡产生的两大诱因。一般认为二者的耦合作用概率小,在现实中也较少发现有此种实例。岷县漳县6.6级地震中黄土地震滑坡广泛发生,本文通过现场调查,在相关降雨量数据、航空影像空间分析的基础上研究了两个地点(永光村滑坡和堡子村滑坡)的典型地震黄土滑坡的空间展布特征和发生、发展过程,分析了诱发机制。结果发现:(1)地震滑坡呈带状分布与地震发震构造走向一致;(2)位于极震区范围的永光村黄土滑坡具有泥流特征,土体含水量可达塑限以上,是由于过量降水和强地震动耦合作用下发生;(3)堡子村黄土地震滑坡则主要为强地震动所诱发,滑距较短,并具滞后发生特性。本结果对未来地震中滑坡的预防与防治具有借鉴意义。     

黄土高原地震作用下黄土滑坡滑距预测方法

为评估黄土高原地区地震滑坡致灾区域,提出一种基于模糊信息优化处理的地震滑坡滑距预测方法。在野外调查、室内试验和分析的基础上,对黄土高原的地震滑坡类型、性质和影响因素进行分析。以摩根斯坦-普莱斯法计算黄土边坡的稳定性,建立边坡最小安全系数与影响因素的关系,其影响因素主要包括地震烈度、比高、坡角、容重、内黏聚力、内摩擦角等,并在此基础上得到纯黄土地震滑坡滑距的影响关系。将黄土高原地区数次大震中采集到的93个样本数据进行归纳分析,建立模糊信息优化处理模型。所得的计算结果通过误差校验和与其他滑坡滑距预测方法进行对比,来证明本模型有较高的准确性。最后对天水市22个潜在滑坡的边坡进行滑距预测。     

黄土高原地震滑坡与强震动记录数据库管理系统的构建与应用

地震滑坡资料与实际强震动记录是开展地震滑坡成灾机理研究的重要基础数据,如何科学管理这些数据资料,并最大限度地发挥其科学价值仍然是一个值得探索的问题。文章以黄土高原地区7次典型历史地震诱发黄土滑坡和125次地震(2001—2018年)的强震动记录为基础数据,依托开源GIS平台+MySQL数据库,构建黄土高原地震滑坡与强震动记录数据库管理系统。该系统界面规范、友好,参数获取方便,图表展示清晰、流畅,不仅为地震滑坡和强震动记录数据资料的管理与应用提供一个科学便捷的平台,也为黄土地震滑坡成灾机理研究提供坚实的数据基础,亦对黄土高原地区防灾减灾工作的开展具有一定的参考价值。     

Modeling of state of vegetation and soil erosion over large areas

A vegetation-erosion model was developed to assess the extent of soil erosion and development trend of vegetation in the context of existing and contemplated vegetation-based soil erosion controls under different climatic, topographical and soil conditions. The model recognizes four vegetation-mediated soil erosion states： （i） an expanding vegetation coverage coupled with reduced erosion （C）, （ii） a deteriorating vegetation coverage coupled with increased erosion （A）, （iii） two transitional states between A and C, one with increasing erosion and vegetation coverage （B） and the other with decreasing erosion and vegetation coverage （D）. With the model, the vegetation-erosion state of any particular area can be quantitatively described, by way of a vegetation-erosion chart, for varying climate, soil and topographic conditions, as demonstrated for the Xishan region, the East River basin, the Wangjiagou and Anjiagou watersheds （Loess Plateau）, and the Xiaojiang watersheds （hot and dry valleys in the upper Yangtze River basin） in China. This paper presents the principles and results of area-specific investigations that track the fractions of the areas covered by vegetation and experiencing soil erosion （with soil loss determined in t/km^2yr）. This is done within the context of local soil erosion control initiatives via re-vegetation efforts, or the lack thereof, over the course of 30 years. The effectiveness of reforestation and erosion-control measures vary under different climatic, topographical and soil conditions. The vegetation may be quickly restored in the hot and wet East River basin but is very difficult on the dry and cold Loess Plateau. In the hot and dry valleys the vegetation can be restored if erosion is controlled and intensive reforestations for small watersheds are performed.     

Influence of thawed soil depth on rainfall erosion of frozen bare meadow soil in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

The Qinghai–Tibet Plateau has a vast area of approximately 70×10⁴ km² of alpine meadow under the impacts of soil freezing and thawing, thereby inducing intensive water erosion. Quantifying the rainfall erosion process of partially thawed soil provides the basis for model simulation of soil erosion on cold-region hillslopes. In this study, we conducted a laboratory experiment on rainfall-induced erosion of partially thawed soil slope under four slope gradients (5, 10, 15, and 20°), three rainfall intensities (30, 60, and 90 mm h⁻¹), and three thawed soil depths (1, 2, and 10 cm). The results indicated that shallow thawed soil depth aggravated soil erosion of partially thawed soil slopes under low hydrodynamic conditions (rainfall intensity of 30 mm h⁻¹ and slope gradient ≤ 15°), whereas it inhibited erosion under high hydrodynamic conditions (rainfall intensity ≥ 60 mm h⁻¹ or slope gradient > 15°). Soil erosion was controlled by the thawed soil depth and runoff hydrodynamic conditions. When the sediment supply was sufficient, the shallow thawed soil depth had a higher erosion potential and a larger sediment concentration. On the contrary, when the sediment supply was insufficient, the shallow thawed soil depth resulted in lower sediment erosion and a smaller sediment concentration. The hydrodynamic runoff conditions determined whether the sediment supply was sufficient. We propose a model to predict sediment delivery under different slope gradients, rainfall intensities, and thawed soil depths. The model, with a Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency of 0.95, accurately predicted the sediment delivery under different conditions, which was helpful for quantification of the complex feedback of sediment delivery to the factors influencing rainfall erosion of partially thawed soil. This study provides valuable insights into the rainfall erosion mechanism of partially thawed soil slopes in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and provides a basis for further studies on soil erosion under different hydrodynamic conditions.     

Application of the SHETRAN basin‐scale,landslide sediment yield model to the Llobregat basin,Spanish Pyrenees

The first application of the SHETRAN basin‐scale, landslide erosion and sediment yield model is carried out for a major landsliding event in the upper 505 km² of the Llobregat basin, in the eastern Spanish Pyrenees, in November 1982. The model simulates the spatial distribution of shallow landslides and their sediment yield. Acknowledging uncertainty in the model parameter evaluation, the aim of the application was not to reproduce the observed occurrence of landslides as accurately as possible with one simulation, but to bracket the observed pattern with several simulations representing uncertainty in the key input conditions. Bounds on the landslide simulations were thus determined as a function of uncertainty in the vegetation root cohesion (used in the model factor of safety calculations). The resulting upper bound considerably overestimates the observed pattern (17 000 landslides compared with an observation of around 700), but it reproduces several of the principal clusters in the observed pattern. The lower bound contains around 500 landslides. The sediment yield estimates (2670–14 630 t km^?2) are comparable to measurements elsewhere in the Pyrenees for extreme events. The results demonstrate an ability to simulate the basin‐scale landslide response to a rainfall event and the resulting sediment yield. They also highlight the need for further research in setting the uncertainty bounds and in avoiding large overestimates of landslide occurrence arising in part from a current inability to model small‐scale controls for a basin of the given size. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

SEDIMENT MOBILIZATION BY SURFACE EROSION IN MIDDLE MOUNTAIN CATCHMENTS OF NEPAL

1 INTRODUCTION Soil erosion in the foothills of the Hindu Kush-Himalayas (HKH) is considered to be a hot topic in land degradation research in the region (Scherr and Yadav, 1996). The land degradation research has mainly addressed the issue of topsoil los…