A modelling study of the effect of cloud saturation and particle growth rates on charge transfer in thunderstorm electrification

Numerical studies have been made of the importance of cloud saturation to the sign of charge transfer during graupel/ice crystal interactions in thunderstorms. Previous laboratory studies led to the idea that the diffusional growth rates of the interacting ice surfaces may influence the sign of the charge transferred during brief collisional contact. The ice crystals grow by vapour diffusion in a supersaturated environment while the graupel surface grows by diffusion under low accretion rate conditions, but will sublimate when heated sufficiently by riming. The graupel surface is also influenced, even under net sublimation conditions, by the vapour released to it from droplets freezing on its surface. In a cloud, the diffusional growth rates are also affected by ventilation when the supercooled droplets and their local environment flow past the riming surface.The diffusional growth rates of ice crystals and riming graupel particles are calculated for various cloud saturation ratios, then the sign of electric charge transferred during crystal/graupel collisions is determined according to the concept of the relative vapour diffusional growth rates, according to Baker et al., 1987 [Baker, B., Baker, M.B., Jayaratne, E.J., Latham, J., Saunders, C.P.R., 1987. The influence of diffusional growth rates on the charge transfer accompanying rebounding collisions between ice crystals and soft hailstones. Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 113, 1193–1215]. It is found necessary, in order to account for the observation of positive charging of riming graupel at high accretion rates, to modify the assumptions of Baker et al. in order to increase the flux of vapour to the graupel surface. The variable growth parameters available may be adjusted to represent the environmental saturation conditions in various laboratory experiments, including the mixing of clouds from regions having different growth conditions, and are used to determine charge sign sensitivity to cloud saturation ratio, temperature and accretion as measured by the cloud effective liquid water content.     

Numerical simulation of the scavenging rates of ice crystals of various microphysical characteristics

Numerical models of trajectories of small aerosol spheres relative to oblate spheroids were used to determine ice crystal scavenging efficiencies. The models included the effects of aerodynamic flow about the ice particle, gravity, aerosol particle inertia and drag and electrostatic effects. Two electric configurations of the ice particle were investi-gated in detail. The first applied a net charge to the ice particle, of magnitude equal to the mean thunderstorm charge distribution, while the second applied a charge distribution, with no net charge, to the ice particle to model the electric multipole charge distribution. The results show that growing ice crystals with electric multipoles are better scavengers than single ice crystals with net thunderstorm charges, especially in the Greenfield gap (0.1 to 1.0 μm), and that larger single crystals are better scavengers than smaller single crystals. The results also show that the low density ice crystals are more effective scavengers with net charges than they are with charge distribution.     

Thunderstorm charging: Laboratory experiments clarified

Further laboratory experiments of thunderstorm charging by ice crystal collisions with riming graupel pellets have led to results that may help account for a major difference between two independent studies reported earlier. The problem concerns values of the cloud liquid water content required to change the sign of graupel charging. The present work has noted and investigated differences in the techniques of cloud nucleation used in the two studies. In one set of measurements by Takahashi, ice crystals are nucleated continuously in a supercooled water droplet cloud, while in the other experiments by Jayaratne et al. and Saunders et al., the droplet cloud is nucleated only briefly. These two nucleation methods lead to differences in the mass of cloud particles collected on a sampling probe used to determine the liquid water content of the cloud. In the continuous nucleation case, the probe collects sufficient numbers of ice crystals to lead to a substantial overestimate of the cloud liquid water content.     

冰晶繁生对雷暴云非感应起电影响的数值模拟

为了研究冰晶繁生在雷暴云发展过程中对非感应起电过程的影响,利用三维雷暴云模式在理想层结环境下,对雷暴云内各种水成物粒子、电荷以及电场分布情况进行数值模拟。模拟结果表明:在雷暴云发展和成熟阶段,有繁生过程参与的雷暴云中下部存在一个冰晶聚集区域,从而使得云内冰晶的数量较无繁生过程增大约1 5%～18%,且聚集的区域范围更大;同时,繁生过程的加入也使得霰粒子数量也比无繁生过程时增大约20%;霰冰非感应电荷转移的正区一般位于霰粒子浓度高值区附近,而负区位于冰晶和霰粒子浓度高值区相重合的区域;冰晶繁生过程通过影响雷暴云中冰晶和霰粒子浓度和分布位置,使得雷暴云非感应起电的强度和位置发生改变,导致云内起电过程提前约5～6 min。     

长春地区对流云起电过程的数值模拟

在三维强风暴动力和电耦合数值模式的基础上,考虑了粒子直径及降落末速差对转移电荷的影响,把非感应起电参数化方案作了进一步改进,对长春地区两次不同强度、不同环境风切变的对流云内电荷累积和电场发展过程进行了模拟分析。结果表明,对流云上升气流达到极大值时,较强和较弱两块云分别具有三极性和反偶极性电荷分布结构。垂直上升气流是表明电场发展强弱的重要参量。对发展强烈的对流云,较强的上升气流使霰和冰晶在云体的中上部维持较长的时间．存在感应和非感应起电的跃增。     

梅雨锋暴雨中云物理过程的观测和数值模拟

Cloud micro-physical structures in a precipitation system associated with the Meiyu front are observedusing the balloon-borne Precipitation Particle Image Sensor at Baoshan observatory station, Shanghaiduring June and July 1999. The vertical distributions of various cloud particle size, number density, andmass density are retrieved from the observations. Analyses of observations show that ice-phase particles(ice crystals, graupel, snowflakes, and frozen drops) often exist in the cloud of torrential rain associatedwith the Meiyu front. Among the various particles, ice crystals and graupel are the most numerous, butgraupel and snow have the highest mass density. Ice-phase particles coexist with liquid water dropletsnear the 0℃ level. The graupel is similarly distributed with height as the ice crystals. Raindrops belowthe 0℃ level are mainly from melted grauple, snowflakes and frozen drops. They may further grow largerby coalescence with smaller ones as they fall from the cloud base. Numerical simulations using the non-hydrostatic meso-scale model MM5 with the Reisner graupel explicit moisture scheme confirm the mainobservational results. Rain water at the lower level is mainly generated from the melting of snow andgraupel falling from the upper level where snow and graupel are generated and grown from collection withcloud and rain water. Thus the mixed-phase cloud process, in which ice phase coexists and interacts withliquid phase (cloud and rain drops), plays the most important role in the formation and development ofheavy convective rainfall in the Meiyu frontal system.     

Simulation of the Electrification of a Tropical Cyclone Using the WRF-ARW Model：An Idealized Case

Evolution of the electrifi cation of an idealized tropical cyclone （TC） is simulated by using the Advanced Weather Research and Forecasting （WRF-ARW） model. The model was modifi ed by addition of explicit electrifi cation and a new bulk discharge scheme. The characteristics of TC lightning is further examined by analyses of the electrifi cation and the charge structure of the TC. The fi ndings thus obtained are able to unify most of the previous inconsisitent observational and simulation studies. The results indicate that the TC eyewall generally exhibits an inverted dipole charge structure with negative charge above the positive. In the intensifi cation stage, however, the extremely tall towers of the eyewall may exhibit a normal tripole structure with a main negative region between two regions of positive charge. The outer spiral rainband cells display a simple normal dipole structure during all the stages. It is further found that the diff erences in the charge structure are associated with diff erent updrafts and particle distributions. Weak updrafts, together with a coexistence region of diff erent particles at lower levels in the eyewall, result in charging processes that occur mainly in the positive graupel charging zone （PGCZ）. In the intensifi cation stage, the occurrence of charging processes in both positive and negative graupel charging zones is associated with strong updraft in the extremely tall towers. In addition, the coexistence region of graupel and ice crystals is mainly situated at upper levels in the outer rainband, so the charging processes mainly occur in the negative graupel charging zone （NGCZ）.     

广东一次飑线过程中一个雷暴单体成熟阶段的电荷结构演变特征的数值模拟

为了进一步印证以往观测反推得到的广东地区雷暴云多偶极性电荷结构的结论,利用加入了起放电参数化方案的WRF模式,模拟了广东在2017年5月8日发生的一次飑线过程,并对这次飑线过程中一个雷暴单体成熟期的电荷结构演变特征进行分析,通过分析动力、云水含量、各水成物粒子混合比及携带电荷情况,讨论了电荷结构的形成及演变机制。结果表明,成熟阶段的单体,电荷结构从三极性逐渐演变为偶极性。这是因为在成熟初期,霰粒子在有效液态水含量适中且温度较高的地方与冰晶/雪花粒子发生了非感应碰撞,因此底部霰粒子携带正电,雷暴云底部形成次正电荷区,电荷结构为三极性。而在成熟后期,由于丰富的云水含量,使冰粒子的凇附过程增强,霰不断增加,冰晶和雪花不断被消耗,温度较暖区域与霰共存的冰晶和雪花急剧减少,使得该区域大小冰粒子的非感应碰撞起电急剧减少,此处霰粒子不能再通过非感应碰撞获得正电荷,底部次正电荷区随之消失,雷暴云的电荷结构转变为偶极性。此结果和以往观测反推得到的结论不同,这表明,对南方雷暴电荷结构还需继续深入认识。      

冰晶异质核化对雷暴云电过程影响的数值模拟

引入一种新型冰晶异质核化方案, 基于二维雷暴云模式, 探讨雷暴云电过程对三种异质核化的响应。结果表明: 浸润核化是冰晶生成的最重要异质核化过程, 较高数浓度的冰晶消耗雷暴云内液态水含量, 抑制淞附过程, 导致霰粒子比含水量低, 表现为较强的负极性非感应起电率; 接触核化生成的冰晶量最少, 仅对雷暴云中下层3~5 km处的冰晶有贡献, 同时霰粒子数浓度较低, 导致该方案下的起电过程最弱; 沉积核化主要影响云砧处的冰晶, 有利于提高霰收集云滴的效率, 表现为极高的霰比含水量, 促进低温区非感应起电过程的发生。总体上来看, 三个方案下的电荷结构均由较复杂的多极性发展为偶极性。其中浸润方案中主正电荷区的抬升最明显, 而接触方案过低的冰晶分布高度与沉积方案过高的冰晶分布高度, 都直接导致了次正电荷区更快消散。      

对流强度对雷暴云微物理发展和电荷结构影响的数值模拟

为了探讨对流强度大小对雷暴云内微物理发展和起电过程的影响,基于已有的二维积云起、放电模式,改变其扰动温度进行敏感性试验。试验结果表明:对流强度对雷暴云内微物理过程、起电率及后续电荷结构的产生均有一定程度的影响:1）对流强度较小时,冰晶粒子极大值在高温区（高于-13.8℃）出现,对流强度较大时,上升风明显增强,将更多的水汽带入高空,气溶胶活化过程明显增强,使得云滴粒子明显增多,冰晶粒子较早产生,冰晶粒子极大值在低温区（低于-13.8℃）出现,发展过程更为剧烈;同时,较高的对流强度也使得降雨量增多,霰粒子数目也在对流发展旺盛时期显著增多。2）非感应起电率主要和冰晶-霰的碰并分离过程有关,对流强度较大时,非感应起电率较大,电荷结构持续时间较长,过程明显,感应起电率也较强。3）对流强度较大时,电荷结构更为复杂,雷暴云发展初期基本呈现为三极性,发展旺盛时期底部正电荷区域嵌入一个较小的负电荷区,呈现四极性电荷结构,雷暴云发展末期基本呈现偶极性电荷结构;对流强度较小时,发展初期、旺盛时期均呈现三极性电荷结构,发展末期呈现偶极性电荷结构。     

A comparison of model calculations of ice crystal growth with observations following silver iodide seeding

Abstract

Past theoretical investigations have reported that observed peaks in the diffusional growth of ice crystals in the vicinity of ‐5 and ‐15°C could be qualitatively modelled assuming certain specific crystal properties. This study re‐examines the ice crystal diffusional growth model using more recently available observations of pertinent crystal parameters. The results, indicative of the growth of average crystals, imply a much weaker dependence of the diffusional mass growth rate on temperature in the range of ‐5 to ‐15°C. Extension of the model to include growth by accretion, also suggests that the mass of heavily rimed crystals is not very sensitive to the original crystal habit. The results of the calculations are compared with observed crystal sizes in cumulus clouds following seeding on three different days. The observations indicate that small crystals were continuously being produced as long as 15 min after seeding. In two cases, crystals much larger than those predicted by the model for any reasonable set of parameters suggest that crystal aggregation may have been occurring at a significant rate.     

沙尘冰核对积云起电过程影响的初步数值模拟试验

非感应起电是指云中冰相粒子间通过相互碰撞而发生的电荷转移现象,尤其以冰晶与霰粒子的碰撞过程为主,被证实是云中电荷产生的主要方式之一。沙尘作为大气冰核的重要组成成分,为了研究沙尘冰核对云中非感应起电过程的影响,本文将两种不同的非感应起电参数化方案(Takahashi方案,以下简称TAK方案;Saunders and Peck 1998方案,以下简称SP98方案)耦合至一维半云和气溶胶分档云模式中。该模式能够显性地追踪每个水成物粒子中云凝结核和冰核的质量大小,模拟每个冰核的核化过程,以及每个冰粒子的碰撞过程,从而确定霰粒子的数浓度和每个冰相粒子的电荷密度。对不同初始沙尘浓度的非感应起电过程进行了敏感性试验,模式模拟结果表明:随着沙尘粒子数浓度的增多,云中冰晶粒子与霰粒子的数浓度都分别增加,初始起电现象发生的时间提前,空间电荷密度大小增加;SP98方案和TAK方案都能模拟出1981年7月19日的一次积云观测个例的偶极型垂直分布,但SP98方案更接近实况。     

大气冰核对雷暴云电过程影响的数值模拟

利用已有的二维雷暴云起、放电模式模拟了一次雷暴天气,并通过敏感性试验研究了冰核浓度变化对雷暴云动力、微物理及电过程的影响。结果表明：随着大气冰核浓度的增加,雷暴云发展提前,上升气流速度和下沉气流速度均呈现降低的趋势。大气冰核浓度提升有利于异质核化过程增强,冰晶在高温区大量生成,而同质核化过程被抑制,因此冰晶整体含量降低,引起低温区中霰粒含量降低和高温区中霰粒尺度降低。在非感应起电过程中,正极性非感应起电率逐渐减小,负极性非感应起电率逐渐增大。由于液态水含量随大气冰核浓度的增加逐渐降低,高温度冰晶携带电荷的极性由负转变为正的时间有所提前。在感应起电过程中,由于霰粒尺度减小及云滴的快速消耗,感应起电率极值逐渐降低。冰晶优先在高温区生成而带负电,不同大气冰核浓度下的雷暴云空间电荷结构在雷暴云发展初期均呈现负的偶极性电荷结构。在雷暴云旺盛期,随着冰核浓度增加,空间电荷结构由三极性转变为复杂四极性。在雷暴云消散阶段不同个例均呈现偶极性电荷结构,且随着冰核浓度的增加电荷密度值逐渐减小。     

Numerical Simulation of Macro- and Micro-structures of Intense Convective Clouds with a Spectral Bin Microphysics Model

By use of a three-dimensional compressible non-hydrostatic convective cloud model with detailed microphysics featuring spectral bins of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), liquid droplets, ice crystals, snow and graupel particles, the spatial and temporal distributions of hydrometeors in a supercell observed by the (Severe Thunderstorm Electrification and Precipitation Study) STEPS triple-radar network are simulated and analyzed. The bin model is also employed to study the effect of CCN concentration on the evolution characteristics of the supercell. It is found that the CCN concentration not only affects the concentration and spectral distribution of water droplets, but also influences the characteristics of ice crystals and graupel particles. With a larger number of CCN, more water droplets and ice crystals are produced and the growth of graupel is restrained. With a small quantity of CCN the production of large size water droplets are promoted by initially small concentrations of water droplets and ice crystals, leading to earlier formation of small size graupel and restraining the recycling growth of graupel, and thus inhibiting the formation of large size graupel (or small size hail). It can be concluded that both the macroscopic airflow and microphysical processes influence the formation and growth of large size graupel (or small size hail). In regions with heavy pollution, a high concentration of CCN may restrain the formation of graupel and hail, and in extremely clean regions, excessively low concentrations of CCN may also limit the formation of large size graupel (hail).     

冰晶核化对雷暴云微物理过程和起电影响的数值模拟研究

本文在已有的二维对流云模式中采用了一种与气溶胶有关的冰晶核化方案替代原有的冰晶核化经验公式, 并选取个例, 分别就两种方案进行了模拟对比试验。模拟结果表明:(1)新方案所得冰晶比含水量主要分布在-0.1~-7.6℃温区之间, 高于原方案所得的-50.1~-24.2℃温区;在整个雷暴云的发展过程中新方案冰晶的分布高度、温度区间以及最大浓度值均大于原方案。(2)在新方案中, 温度相对较高的过冷区产生大量冰晶, 其争食云中水汽抑制了云滴、雨滴的增长。此外, 与原方案相比, 霰增长受雨滴大幅减小的影响进一步得到限制, 导致生成的霰小于原方案, 且空间分布具有较大区别。(3)两方案在雷暴云初期形成的电荷结构不同;在发展旺盛与消散阶段新方案中电荷空间分布区域和电荷量均大于原方案, 此外, 在不同时刻主正电荷区和主负电荷区的中心高度存在差异。本文对云微物理过程及起电的分析为后继探讨气溶胶与雷暴云起放电过程、电荷结构之间的相互关系提供了有利条件。     

Dominant cloud microphysical processes of a torrential rainfall event in Sichuan,China

High-resolution numerical simulation data of a rainstorm triggering debris flow in Sichuan Province of China simulated by the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model were used to study the dominant cloud microphysical processes of the torrential rainfall. The results showed that: (1) In the strong precipitation period, particle sizes of all hydrometeors increased, and mean-mass diameters of graupel increased the most significantly, as compared with those in the weak precipitation period; (2) The terminal velocity of raindrops was the strongest among all hydrometeors, followed by graupel’s, which was much smaller than that of raindrops. Differences between various hydrometeors’ terminal velocities in the strong precipitation period were larger than those in the weak precipitation period, which favored relative motion, collection interaction and transformation between the particles. Absolute terminal velocity values of raindrops and graupel were significantly greater than those of air upward velocity, and the stronger the precipitation was, the greater the differences between them were; (3) The orders of magnitudes of the various hydrometeors’ sources and sinks in the strong precipitation period were larger than those in the weak precipitation period, causing a difference in the intensity of precipitation. Water vapor, cloud water, raindrops, graupel and their exchange processes played a major role in the production of the torrential rainfall, and there were two main processes via which raindrops were generated: abundant water vapor condensed into cloud water and, on the one hand, accretion of cloud water by rain water formed rain water, while on the other hand, accretion of cloud water by graupel formed graupel, and then the melting of graupel formed rain water.     

区域冷锋降水微物理机制研究

20世纪利用一维层状云模式对2002年4月4~5日河南省冷锋降水过程进行了模拟。数值模拟结果显示,此次冷锋降水属于冷云降水过程,冷锋前后云中主要以冰相粒子为主,云中水质粒自上而下的空间分布依次为冰晶、雪、云水、霰、雨水。冷锋前后,各种水质粒有着不同的含量及数密度,但形成水质粒的主要微物理过程都表现为:冰晶数密度的增加主要依靠核化、繁生,大部分雪主要靠凝华、撞冻过冷云水和冰晶增长,霰的质量增加主要靠撞冻雪、过冷云水和雪自动转化而来,大部分的雨水是由霰融化而来,因而此次冷锋降水机制表现为“水汽—雪—霰—雨水”。     

云水饱和度对雷暴云非感应起电过程的影响

在三维强风暴动力—电耦合数值模式中引入基于Saunders et al.(1991) 实验结果的非感应起电参数化方案S91,在此基础上,利用云水饱和度替代环境温度和有效液水含量将S91方案变形.对比分析一次雷暴单体首次放电前,变形后的S91方案和原S91方案模拟得到的非感应转移电荷的极性、量级、电荷结构以及与霰和冰晶粒子分布之间的关系.结果表明,虽然两种方案采用的电荷密度变化率以及每次碰撞平均转移的电荷量均相同,但不同方案中决定粒子间电荷转移的因子不同对电荷的分布存在较大的影响.加入云水饱和度的S91方案,非感应转移电荷的极性多为正极性,电荷结构先呈单极性后转变为三极性,并有进一步转变为偶极性的趋势.但这两种方案模拟得到的霰与冰晶粒子电荷分布的重合区的范围、大小均不同,这也是造成两种方案电荷结构和转移电荷分布不同的主要原因.     

Torrential rainfall responses to ice microphysical processes during pre-summer heavy rainfall over southern China

In this study,the effects of key ice microphysical processes on the pre-summer heavy rainfall over southern China during 3-8 June 2008 were investigated.A series of two-dimensional sensitivity cloud-resolving model simulations were forced with zonally uniform vertical velocity,zonal wind,horizontal temperature,and water vapor advection data from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction(NCEP)/Global Data Assimilation System(GDAS).The effects of key ice microphysical processes on the responses of rainfall to large-scale forcing were analyzed by comparing two sensitivity experiments with a control experiment.In one sensitivity experiment,ice crystal radius,associated with depositional growth of snow from cloud ice,was reduced from 100 μm in the control experiment to 50 μm,and in the other sensitivity experiment the efficiency of the growth of graupel from the accretion of snow was reduced to 50% from 100% in the control experiment.The results show that the domain-mean rainfall responses to these ice microphysical processes are stronger during the decay phase than during the onset and mature phases.During the decay phase,the increased mean rain rate resulting from the decrease in ice crystal radius is associated with the enhanced mean local atmospheric drying,the increased mean local hydrometeor loss,and the suppressed mean water vapor divergence.The increased mean rain rate caused by the reduction in accretion efficiency is related to the reduced mean water vapor divergence and the enhanced mean local hydrometeor loss.     

基于WRF模式和CloudSat卫星资料对黄淮下游一次强对流天气过程的诊断分析和数值模拟

利用Cloud Sat卫星资料和WRF中尺度模式,结合NCEP再分析资料及FY2G静止气象卫星资料,研究了发生在黄淮地区的一次深对流天气过程,分析了此次过程的天气特征、动力结构,重点分析了该次强对流过程中各水成物的时空演变特征。结果表明:(1)黄淮下游地区处于副高西北边缘,温度高,湿度大,对流潜势好。在地面冷锋和低层切变线的抬升触发下,气流不断辐合上升,同时高层冷平流与低层暖湿空气为强对流的发展提供了热力不稳定条件;(2)使用静止卫星TBB产品可以很好的定位、追踪深对流系统,但单一的TBB产品无法分辨深对流云和较厚的高云。本文结合Cloud Sat卫星资料和TBB产品把剖面上的云分为3种:非对流云(NDC),一般深对流云(DC),深对流核(DCC);(3)深对流云核(DCC)位于对流系统南部边缘,在3种云中DCC中冰相粒子粒径大、数浓度多、冰水含量大,且其最大值区域都位于12 km高度附近,这一区域可能是对流云内冰晶凝华增长、凇附增长、聚并增长形成大冰相粒子的关键发生区;(4)耦合了NSSL双参方案的WRF模式对于本次过程体现了较好的模拟效果,并通过模拟再现了此次天气过程中水成物的分布特征,发现本次过程深对流云中存在过冷水累积带特征。冰核核化形成的冰晶通过碰并过程形成雪晶,霰又由雪晶碰撞冻结过冷水滴以及过冷雨滴冻结产生,之后不断增长转化形成冰雹,雹增长到足够大后降落,其中雪晶和过冷水累积带对霰(雹胚)及雹的产生及增长至关重要。