Nonlinear analysis of multilayer extensible geosynthetic-reinforced granular bed on soft soil

The paper presents a model for the analysis of granular foundation beds reinforced with several geosynthetic layers. Such reinforced granular beds are often placed on soft soil strata for an efficient and economical transfer of superstructure load. The granular bed is modeled by the Pasternak shear layer and the geosynthetic reinforcement layers by stretched rough elastic membranes. The soft soil is represented by a series of nonlinear springs. The reinforcement has been considered to be extensible and it is assumed that the deformation at the interface of the reinforcements and soil are same. The nonlinear behavior of the granular bed and the soft soil is considered. Plane strain conditions are considered for the loading and reinforced foundation soil system. An iterative finite difference scheme is applied for obtaining the solution and results are presented in nondimensional form. The results from the proposed model are compared to the results obtained for multilayer inextensible geosynthetic reinforcement system. Significant reduction in the settlement has been observed when the number of reinforcement layer is increased. In case of inextensible reinforcements as the number of reinforcement layer is increased the settlement is decreased with a decreasing rate, but in case of extensible reinforcement the reduction rate is almost constant. Nonlinear behavior of the soft soil decreases as number of reinforcement layer is increased. The effect of the stiffness of the geosynthetic layer on the settlement response becomes insignificant for multilayer reinforced system, but the mobilized tension in the reinforcement layers increases as the stiffness of the geosynthetic layers increases.     

桩承式加筋路堤张力膜效应模型试验研究

在桩承式加筋路堤设计计算及工程实践中,筋材的受力计算是具有争议且亟待解决的问题,然而,现有的研究很少关注桩承式加筋路堤中筋材应变的空间分布形式和三维模式下筋材的受力特征。采用自行研制的设备,以桩间距为变量,针对桩承式加筋路堤中筋材张力膜效应进行了物理模拟试验。试验中通过气压施加荷载,对筋材竖向变形和不同位置筋材应变进行观测。结果表明,张力膜效应下筋材应变和受力很不均匀。正方形布桩情形下,加筋材料的空间变形形态可采用空间抛物面与抛物柱面的组合来模拟。正方形布桩情形下假定筋材上所有荷载全部由相邻桩之间的4条筋带承担,得到的筋材受力计算值明显偏大。在模拟试验结果基础上,初步提出了考虑筋材三维空间变形的拉力计算方法。     

Capturing strain localization in reinforced soils

Lade’s single hardening soil model with Cosserat rotation embodied in the finite element method is employed to investigate the behavior of geosynthetic reinforced soils with special attention to the development of shear banding. The ability of the finite element model to detect shear banding in a reinforced soil is examined against three high quality small-scale laboratory plane strain tests on Toyoura sand with and without reinforcement. These three tests were chosen because of the clear failure surfaces that developed in the soil during loading. The FEM analyses were able to reasonably simulate the plane strain laboratory tests including both unreinforced and reinforced cases. The FEM analyses gave reasonably good agreement with the experimental results in terms of global stress–strain relationships and shear band occurrences. Furthermore, and based on FE analyses of a hypothetical geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS) retaining wall, it is shown that the geosynthetic reinforcements are very effective in hindering the formation of shear bands in GRS retaining walls when small spacing between the reinforcement layers was used. When used properly, the geosynthetic reinforcements made the soil behave as a truly reinforced mass of considerable stiffness and strength.     

Physical evidence of the effect of vertical cyclic loading on soil improvement by rigid piles: a small-scale laboratory experiment using Digital Image Correlation

This paper presents an experimental study focusing on the mechanisms taking place in a granular platform supported by piles in soft soil under vertical cyclic loading. An original three-dimensional laboratory model was developed, with a scale factor of 1/10 on the length. The model contains 20 rigid piles, and the compressible soil is explicitly simulated by a soft material. The case of a thin granular load transfer platform overlaid by a rigid slab is studied. Tests were performed under monotonic or cyclic loading applied on the surface using a pressurized membrane. The analysis is based on a force and displacement sensor instrumentation and application of a Digital Image Correlation technique. The evaluation of the load transfer onto the piles and the settlements in the platform are some of the main points under the scope of this study. The effect of the cyclic loading and the sequence of loading on the structure’s response are examined by a comparative study between the series of cyclic and monotonic tests. Settlement accumulation and increase in the load transmitted to the piles were observed during the cycles. The image analysis gives access to the displacement field within the granular platform, and its evolution during the cycles could be analysed.     

Non-uniform granular pile–mat foundations: analysis and model tests

Granular piles are commonly used to improve bearing capacity and reduce settlements of soft soil in coastal and lowland areas. Due to various reasons, granular piles tend to acquire a non-uniform tapered-down cross-section in actual construction process. In this paper, a simple theoretical approach to predict deformation behaviour of soft ground reinforced with non-uniform granular pile–mat system is presented. A small-scale experimental set-up is fabricated in the laboratory and tests performed. Results predicted by the proposed approach compare well with the laboratory tests, and the field tests and other numerical test results available in literature. A parametric study has been carried out to evaluate the relative influence of granular mat thickness and relative stiffness on various responses of non-uniform granular piles.     

土工布加筋基础的沉降和土工布拉力

给出解土工布加筋基础非线性模型方程组的差分选代格式。讨论了夹有土工布的砂层的荷载传递和模型参数对加筋基础的沉降及土工布拉力的影响。     

双向增强复合地基沉降计算方法研究

将双向增强复合地基中的水平向加筋垫层视为具有一定刚度的地基梁,竖向桩体和桩间土体简化为一系列刚度不同的弹簧,考虑水平加筋垫层上下界面摩阻力的影响,基于Winkler弹性地基梁理论推导出水平加筋体的挠曲变形微分方程,并给出其幂级数半解析解,从而得到了双向增强复合地基在对称荷载作用下的沉降计算方法。通过与常规弹性地基梁法的比较验证了该方法的正确性。该方法可考虑水平加筋体筋材拉力对双向增强复合地基沉降的影响,研究结果表明,水平加筋体的设置有利于减少复合地基的沉降量     

Evaluation of dynamic properties of geosynthetic reinforced clay samples for environmental impact practices

A series of tests were conducted to investigate the improvement of damping properties of clay samples with geosynthetic inclusions. Flexible thermoplastic polymer synthetics improve damping properties of clay samples. Resonant column tests were conducted to measure the low strain shear modulus and damping ratio of laboratory prepared synthetic inclusion clay specimens. The shear modulus and damping ratio of the reinforced clay samples were investigated considering geosynthetic type (geotextile and geomembrane), number of geosynthetic sheets, and confining pressure. The test results demonstrated that the geomembrane and the number of geosynthetic sheets significantly improved the shear modulus and damping ratio of reinforced clay samples compared with those of the unreinforced clay samples.     

几种缺陷单桩竖向承载性状的现场模型试验研究

为评价灌注桩在施工过程中因形成缩径、扩径、断桩、泥皮等缺陷导致单桩竖向极限承载力变化的程度,针对缺陷桩单桩开展了现场模型试验研究。进行正常桩和缺陷桩的竖向静载模型试验,测试单桩竖向极限承载力,对比缺陷桩和正常桩的单桩承载特性,分析了缩径、扩径、断桩、泥皮等缺陷对单桩承载性状的影响。对比正常桩和缺陷桩的荷载-沉降关系曲线,得出了基于文中缺陷桩设计方案的结论,缩径缺陷和泥皮缺陷均使单桩竖向极限承载力降低,降幅在正常桩极限承载力的15%范围内;扩径缺陷桩的荷载-沉降关系曲线无明显陡降点,桩顶沉降较正常桩递增缓慢;断桩缺陷影响荷载-沉降关系曲线中反弯点的出现位置,即反弯点出现时的桩顶位移与断桩缺陷距地表的距离有关。     

Numerical Analysis of Multi Layer Geosynthetic-Reinforced Granular Bed over Soft Fill

In this paper, considering the plain strain conditions, a numerical study has been conducted to investigate the behavior of multi layer geosynthetic-reinforced granular bed overlying a soft soil using the Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua (FLAC) program. The granular fill, soft soil, and geosynthetic reinforcements are considered as linear elastic materials. The geosynthetic reinforcements are modeled as cable elements fully bonded with the surrounding soil, thus neglecting any slip. The results obtained from the present investigation showed very close agreement when compared with the results of finite element analysis and lumped parameter modeling. The distribution of vertical, lateral and shear stresses in the soil are greatly affected as the number of reinforcement layers is increased. If the tensile stiffness of geosynthetic layers increases and its value is no more than 4,000–5,000 kN/m, the settlement of the reinforced foundation decreases significantly. The reduction in settlement is insignificant when the tensile strength of the geosynthetics exceed the above value.     

Effect of Compressive Load on Oblique Pull-out Capacity of Model Piles in Sand

Model tests on steel piles embedded in sand were carried out in the laboratory to study the effects of compressive load (i.e. 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% of their ultimate capacity in compression) on oblique pull-out capacity of piles. The model piles were of 20 mm × 20 mm cross section, which had an embedded length of 400 and 600 mm. The pull was applied at an inclination of 0°, 30°, 60° and 90° with vertical axis of the piles. The experimental results indicate that the net oblique pull-out capacity of piles decreases with increase in % of compressive load and the decrease depends on the magnitude of the compressive load. Semi-empirical methods, based on experimental results, have been suggested to determine the oblique pull-out resistance of piles subjected to static compressive loads. A comparison of predicted values of the ultimate oblique resistance by proposed methods of analysis with experimental values, and also with those reported by others, showed reasonably good agreement.     

Soil/Geotextile Interface Behaviour in Direct Shear and Pullout Movements

This paper deals with soil/reinforced geotextile interface behaviour in direct shear and pullout movements. A soil/geosynthetic direct shear apparatus, developed in accordance to EN ISO 12957-1 (2004) and ASTM D5321-92 (1992) standards, is presented. Some details of the test (like: specimen fixation, influence of the vertical stress on the registered horizontal force, type of test and measurement of the vertical displacement) are discussed and modifications in the test procedures are adopted. Then, the reinforced geotextile and the residual soil of granite used in the research are described. The behaviour of soil/geosynthetic interface in direct shear is characterized based on modified direct shear tests and maximum interface shear stress is determined at peak and residual for a confining stress of 50 kPa. The modification in the pullout test apparatus described by Lopes and Ladeira (1996a; 1996b) and by Lopes and Lopes (1999) are noticed. The behaviour of soil/geosynthetic interface in pullout is characterized based on pullout tests performed, in accordance EN 13738 (2004), and interface shear stress at maximum pullout force is defined for a confining stress of 50 kPa. Finally, the values of interface coefficient at soil/geosynthetic interface are obtained in direct shear and in pullout and then compared. The main conclusions that can be outlined from the present study are the following: modifications should be made to EN ISO 12957-1 (2004) standard, namely in what concerns the dependence of the measured horizontal force from the vertical stress, the difficulties to perform constant area direct shear test with the lower half box filled with soil and on the measurement of the vertical displacement of the load plate; on the contrary to which is normally accepted the characteristics of the behaviour of soil/geosynthetic interface in pullout, when the geosynthetic has a full plane contact area with the soil, are not able to be obtained based on results of direct shear tests, as in this type of tests the contribution of the geosynthetic deformation on the characteristics of the interface in pullout is not considered.     

Design method for local load on a geosynthetic reinforced soil structure

This paper presents a method for the design of geosynthetic reinforced soil structures, adapted for the case of a local surcharge load. The load has an important influence on the mechanical behaviour of the reinforcement. The basic calculation method is described and a design calculation method is proposed for the case of a locally loaded structure. This new approach is validated on the basis of experimental results obtained on several full-scale embankments, locally loaded to failure. These experimental results are compared to the results of calculation with partial safety factors from Eurocode 7.     

Soil–Structure Interaction of Damped Infinite Beams on Extensible Geosynthetic Reinforced Earth Beds Under Moving Loads

In the present paper, soil-structure interaction analysis of an infinite beam resting on extensible geosynthetic reinforced earth beds has been carried out for an applied load moving with constant velocity. The viscous damping of the soil-foundation system has been given due consideration in the analytical procedure. The infinite beam has been treated as resting on a granular fill layer overlying the naturally occurring weak soil layer. Geosynthetic layer has been provided in the granular fill layer and has been considered as extensible. This extensible nature has been incorporated with the help of no slip and the compatibility conditions at the interface between reinforcing layer and the neighboring soil. These conditions help in eliminating the two interfacial shear stress parameters and in considering the tensile modulus of geosynthetic layer in the analysis. The influence of various parameters, like magnitude and velocity of applied moving load, viscous damping, relative stiffness of granular fill and tensile modulus of geosynthetic layer, on the response of soil-foundation system has been studied. It has been observed that all these parameters affect the response significantly, however, the effect of velocity of moving load and viscous damping has been found to be more significant especially at higher velocities.     

直接加固软弱下卧土层的地基工作性状模型试验研究

高压喷射注浆法可以在软弱下卧土层中直接形成加固桩体对软土地基进行加固。对这种加固方法形成的地基进行了一组模型试验,其中包含了天然地基和加固地基,加固地基中设置了一组3×3的加固桩体,通过对比研究了直接加固软弱下卧土层的地基处理方法对地基工作性状的影响。结果表明：直接加固软弱下卧土层的方法能很好地改善地基的沉降特性,提高地基的承载能力。加固桩体能有效地传递荷载,使加固区软弱土体的压缩量大大减小。随着荷载的增加,加固桩体顶端承担的荷载大体呈线性增加,桩顶轴力表现为角桩最大,边桩次之,中心桩最小。加固桩体上部受负摩阻力作用,下部受正摩阻力作用,桩身最大轴力位于距桩顶25 cm处。加固区的平均桩-土应力比随荷载的增加而减小。     

Stone Columns with Vertical Circumferential Nails: Laboratory Model Study

This paper presents results from a series of laboratory plate load tests carried out in unit cell tanks to investigate the improvement in stiffness, load carrying capacity and resistance to bulging of stone columns installed in soft soils. A new method of reinforcing the stone columns with vertical nails installed along the circumference of the stone column is suggested for improving the performance of these columns. Tests were carried out with two types of loading (1) the entire area in the unit cell tank loaded, to estimate the stiffness of improved ground and (2) only the stone column loaded, to estimate the limiting axial capacity. It is found that stone columns reinforced with vertical nails along the circumference have much higher load carrying capacity and undergo lesser compression and lesser lateral bulging as compared to conventional stone columns. The benefit of vertical circumferential nails increases with increase in the diameter, number and depth of embedment of the nails. The improvement in the performance of stone column was found to be more significant, even with lower area ratio. It is found that reinforcing stone column with vertical circumferential nails at the top portion to a depth equal to three times the diameter of stone columns, will be adequate to prevent the column from excessive bulging and to improve its load carrying capacity substantially.     

Experimental Investigation on the Movement of Soil and Piles in Transparent Granular Soils

In order to visually observe the displacement characteristics of internal soil, model tests on the penetration of six flat-ended piles in synthetic transparent soil were carried out. The granular-soil particles were registered by laser speckles, thus the penetration process of the piles was visualized. The movement of pile-soil interaction was determined by comparing the images before and after penetrations. Based on the test results, the vertical and horizontal displacement of the granular caused by a sequence of jacked piles was discussed. The sheltering effect of the adjacent piles during the penetration of the follow-up pile was analyzed. The responses of the granular soils during the penetration of piles were discussed, and test data was compared with DEM analyses. The pile heave at different stages of the penetration and the ground uplift at different positions were evaluated and compared.     

Analysis of geosynthetic reinforced soil using a simple transform function

The use of geosynthetic to reinforce soft-soils or peat in order to improve the load-settlement response is quite common. In such cases a layer of engineered fill, reinforced with a geosynthetic, is placed on the soft ground and the load is supported by the granular fill. In the present paper a procedure is outlined for the analysis of such a geothynthetic reinforced soil system. The granular fill is assumed to be rigid-strain hardening plastic and the soft soil is modeled by a Winkler type foundation. The grid is considered to be “rough” on its surfaces and be linearly elastic when subjected to tensile stresses. A simple transform function is used in the analysis. Through the analysis performed the influence of various factors such as the degree of overconsolidation (through compaction) of the fill, its dilatational properties, and the tangent modulus of the geogrid are investigated and discussed.     

New method for non-linear analysis of rigid piles in clay

Using the numerical technique of solving nonlinear simultaneous equations, a new method of analysis is developed for design of eccentric and/or inclined loaded rigid piles in clay. The method takes account of the non-linear strain-stress characteristics of the soil around the piles and can be used for round, rectangular and other symmetric rigid piles.

The computed results using this method were found to be in good agreement with the measured values of some field tests and laboratory model tests.