新疆西准噶尔包古图金矿微量元素地球化学研究

包古图金矿由石英脉型和蚀变岩型矿体组成,该矿的热液成矿期可以划分为4个阶段:粗粒石英脉阶段(Ⅰ)、含金细粒硫化物-石英脉阶段(Ⅱ)、含金粗粒自然砷-辉锑矿-石英脉阶段(Ⅲ)以及方解石脉阶段(Ⅳ),其中阶段Ⅱ和Ⅲ是主要的金矿化阶段,形成自然金赋存于毒砂、含砷黄铁矿中,银金矿被自然砷、辉锑矿包裹。阶段Ⅰ石英脉的稀土元素总量(0.83×10-6~3.67×10-6)明显低于阶段Ⅱ(11.01×10-6~30.18×10-6),轻重稀土元素分馏[(La/Yb)N=8.53~21.89]较阶段Ⅱ[(La/Yb)N=6.90~10.40]明显,但总体具有与区内中酸性侵入岩相似的稀土元素配分模式;阶段Ⅰ石英脉具有弱Eu正异常(δEu=1.09~1.80),阶段ⅡδEu主要集中于1.36~0.67之间;所有样品显示弱Ce负异常或无Ce异常(δCe=0.87~1.01)。矿化围岩和含矿石英脉中的黄铁矿均显示右倾型稀土元素配分模式,但石英脉中黄铁矿轻重稀土元素分馏更明显[(La/Yb)N=24.0~36.1],所有黄铁矿均具有明显Eu负异常(δEu=0.50~0.64)。不同阶段石英脉和黄铁矿中Ce、Eu异常表明成矿流体逐渐向较还原的状态演化。黄铁矿的Co/Ni比值(1.60~10.50)指示初始成矿流体为中温。包古图金矿含矿石英脉与区内广泛发育的中酸性斑岩体、岩脉在时间和空间上密切相关,具有相似的稀土元素配分模式,以上特征指示包古图金矿成矿作用与区内晚石炭世中酸性岩浆活动有关。     

玲珑-焦家式金矿床流体包裹体的稀土和微量元素特征

应用热爆提取和 ICP-MS 方法,研究了玲珑-焦家式金矿床脉石英和绢英岩中流体包裹体的微量元素特征。结果表明,流体包裹体中 REE 配分模式均表现为 LREE 富集型,轻、重稀土具有较好的分馏,LREE/HREE=6.07～26.41。但轻重稀土内部分异不明显,(La/Sm)、=2.15～5.11,(Gd/Lu)=0.72～5.24。成矿流体具有弱的 Eu 正异常,δEu=1.05～7.09,与中高温、弱酸性的现代地热成矿系统相似。流体包裹体/中国陆壳元素丰度标准化后表明,流体中富集的重金属元素有 Cu、Mo、Pb、Bi 等,它们的富集系数大于1。成矿流体中亏损的元素有 Ti、V、Cr、Co、Li、Zr、Nb、Th、U 等。流体包裹体微量元素、稀土元素特征为金矿床的成因研究增添了新的证据。玲珑-焦家式金矿床的流体包裹体具相似的 REE 特征,而与其它地区的金矿床或其它类型的矿床则明显不同,说明该区金矿床成矿地球动力学背景相同,都与中生代燕山期构造体制转折条下热液活动有关。     

贵州镇宁重晶石矿中硅质岩稀土元素地球化学研究

通过对镇宁泥盆系重晶石矿中硅质岩稀土元素地球化学特征研究,发现硅质岩稀土总量较低,轻稀土富集,δCe呈弱的负异常,δEu呈负异常到正异常,{La/Sm}N和{Gd/Yb}N值表明轻稀土分异强;通过∑REE、Ce/Ce＊、Eu/Eu＊、{La/Ce}N和{La/Lu}N参数综合分析,硅质岩沉积成岩过程中有明显的热水参与,...     

云南澜沧老厂大型银多金属矿床黄铁矿稀土和微量元素地球化学

云南澜沧老厂银多金属矿床是“三江”成矿带南段著名的代表性矿床之一。本文系统研究了矿床中黄铁矿（石）的稀土和微量元素地球化学特征。结果表明：老厂矿床黄铁矿（石）稀土元素总量较低,黄铁矿石EREE平均为5．54×10^6,其单矿物EREE平均仅为0．25×10^6;各类样品稀土配分模式均为明显右倾的轻稀土富集模式,轻稀土分异较强、而重稀土元素分异较弱;黄铁矿石、矿物δEu正异常、δCe负异常和轻稀土富集的配分模式与现代海底热液稀土的十分相似,是成矿流体海底喷流沉积的体现,此外黄铁矿石、矿物还发育弱的δEu负异常,可能是后期岩浆成矿热液叠加改造的结果。矿床黄铁矿单矿物除相对富集少量高场强元素外,其它元素均有不同程度的亏损,其Hf／Sm、Th／La、Nb／La值普遍〈1,表明矿床成矿流体可能是以富cl的成矿热液为主;黄铁矿co、Ni含量较低且变化较大,Co／Ni比值显示矿床经历了不同的成矿阶段,利用Y／Ho比值示踪成矿流体表明,黄铁矿Y／Ho比值与海水及海底热液基本一致,为矿床经历海底火山喷流沉积成矿作用提供了新的佐证。     

贵州锦丰（烂泥沟）金矿床含砷黄铁矿和脉石英及其包裹体的微量元素特征

贵州锦丰（烂泥沟）金矿是滇黔桂“金三角”目前已探明最大的卡林型金矿床。含砷黄铁矿是该矿床最主要的载金矿物,硅化及石英脉是最显著的热液蚀变类型。本文采用高精度电感耦合等离子质谱（ICP-MS）对含砷黄铁矿和脉石英及其包裹体的微量元素进行了测试,结果表明含砷黄铁矿富亲硫元素,并相对于围岩和上部地壳均强烈富集;亏损V,Sr 及高场强元素。同生黄铁矿也具有类似的特征。脉石英除亲石元素含量高以外,还表现为亲硫元素以及Mo,Bi 含量较高。但与上部地壳相比,绝大部分元素贫化。相应包裹体的微量元素含量普遍低于单矿物,但变化特征一致。结合矿物和包裹体的稀土元素分析,发现脉石英和含砷黄铁矿及其包裹体均表现为HFSE明显亏损,Th/La,Nb/La 比值小于1,说明成矿流体为富Cl 的流体。含砷黄铁矿及其包裹体中Co/Ni 比值远小于1,反映成矿温度较低,推测成矿流体主要来源于以沉积建造水为主的盆地流体。     

赣中大王山钨钼多金属矿集区辉钼矿微量元素地球化学特征

为厘清大王山钨钼多金属矿集区成矿流体性质和成矿物质来源,以矿床(点)中与黑钨矿共生的辉钼矿为研究对象,利用ICP-MS分析方法,展开稀土元素和微量元素地球化学研究。结果显示,辉钼矿中稀土元素含量较低(ΣREE=60.8×10~(-6)~92.19×10~(-6)),轻稀土元素(LREE)富集(LREE/HREE=15.50~36.84,平均为26.53),轻重稀土分异程度较弱((La/Yb)N=1.10~10.37,平均为4.35),辉钼矿稀土元素具有Ce负异常(δCe=0.21~0.44)和强烈的Eu亏损(δEu=0.01~0.03)现象,δSm与δCe呈负相关关系,ΣREE与δCe具有正相关性,指示其成矿条件为较高温的还原环境。微量元素多以非类质同象的机械混合或流体包裹体的形式存在,富集Cu,W,Bi,Pb等,除瑶蓝窝矿点的Nb/La1外,其他矿床(点)的Nb/La,Hf/Sm,Th/La均1,表明成矿流体富Cl。通过REE vs La/Yb图解可以看出辉钼矿与赋矿花岗岩投点范围集中,具有壳幔混合的同源性。综合前人对研究区硫化矿硫同位素特征的研究,结合La vs La/Sm图解,暗示中生代辉钼矿可能有一个共同的富集成矿元素的幔源区。大王山钨钼多金属矿集区的岩浆-流体在深部可能经历了两个主要演化过程:(1)幔源成矿物质与赋矿围岩岩浆在深部发生了充分的混合作用;(2)赋矿岩浆在演化后期发生了液态不混溶作用。     

石英、黄铁矿及其包裹体的稀土元素特征——以胶东焦家式金矿为例

本文采用ICP—MS测定了焦家、马塘、东季、红布等焦家式金矿床中黄铁矿、石英及其包裹体的稀土元素组成。结果表明：采用ICP—MS直接测定黄铁矿包裹体的稀土元素是可行的；包裹体爆裂丰度虽然对稀土总量有影响，但矿源稀土元素背景值的差异也是流体中稀土总量差别的主要原因之一。∑REE、δEu、δCe及LREE／HREE、(La/Yb)N、(Ce/Yb)N、(La／Lu)N都是有意义的稀土元素特征参数；焦家式金矿同一成矿阶段黄铁矿、石英及其包裹体的稀土元素特征相似，显示了它们的同源特征；不同成矿阶段黄铁矿、石英及其包裹体的稀土元素特征有差异，反映了其成矿流体特征的差异。     

遵义黄家湾Ni-Mo多金属矿床成矿流体特征:来自方解石流体包裹体、REE和C、O同位素证据

黄家湾矿床是近几年在贵州遵义地区寒武系底部黑色页岩中新发现的以Ni-Mo为主的多元素矿床,本文首次对该矿床成矿阶段方解石的流体包裹体、REE和C、O同位素组成特征进行了系统研究.研究结果显示:(1)该矿床成矿阶段方解石中含有3种类型的流体包裹体:富液相气液两相水溶液包裹体;富气相气液两相水溶液包裹体;纯液相包裹体.它们的气相分数变化较大,显示成矿过程中可能发生过沸腾作用.流体包裹体的显微测温结果显示,成矿流体的冰点温度为-11.6～-5.5℃,流体盐度变化范围为8.55％ ～ 15.57％ NaCleqv,均一温度为109.0 ～ 181.8℃,对应流体密度为0.97 ～ 1.44g·cm-3;(2)遵义黄家湾钼-镍多金属矿床中与成矿期有关的方解石的稀土总量高且变化范围宽(39.9×10-6～ 275×10-6),配分曲线为轻稀土富集((La/Yb)N=29.6 ～63.3)的右倾型,且铕正异常明显(Eu/Eu*为2.14～14.8),与现代海底热液矿床中方解石的稀土特征类似;(3)同位素测定显示成矿流体的碳氧同位素组成分别为δ13C V-PDB=-6.3‰～-5.7‰,δ18OV-SMOW=15.6‰ ～16.0‰,计算得到流体水的δ18OV-SMOW-H2O‰平均值变化于-0.97‰～ +5.16‰之间.上述综合研究表明:黄家湾Ni-Mo多金属矿床成矿流体主要为海水和地层中的建造水(盆地热卤水),同时由海水演化来的海底热液也参与了成矿过程.成矿流体中的碳可能由深源碳与海相碳酸盐岩共同提供.     

渝东南地区石牛栏组稀土元素地球化学特征及地质意义

渝东南地区的下志留统石牛栏组作为重要的油气储集层,研究其古环境变化、物质来源及物源区构造背景具有重要意义。本文采用稀土元素总量w(ΣREE)、REE配分模式、以及w(ΣLREE)/w(ΣHREE)、w(La)_N/w(Yb)_N、w(Ce)_N/w(Yb)_N、w(La)_N/w(Sm)_N、w(Gd)_N/w(Yb)_N、δEu、δCe、Ce_(anom)等特征值研究方法,对渝东南下志留统石牛栏组典型剖面的稀土元素特征及古海洋环境和物源进行深入研究。结果表明:石牛栏组灰岩稀土元素总量略低于大陆地壳平均值,轻稀土较为富集,重稀土亏损,铕明显负异常,铈负异常较微弱。w(ΣREE)证实了石牛栏组的沉积水体由浅缓慢变深再急剧变浅的变化过程。Eu负异常、Ce负异常和C_(eanom)值均揭示石牛栏组沉积时期海水具有弱还原性。REE的分异程度反映了石牛栏组从沉积早期到沉积晚期,沉积速率总体降低。稀土元素的比值特征及w(ΣREE)—w(La)/w(Yb)图解表明其物源源自雪峰山隆起,源岩主要为沉积岩。     

中国钼矿中辉钼矿的稀土元素地球化学及其应用

钼矿是中国比较特殊的一个矿种,是近年来找矿突破最大的矿种之一。辉钼矿作为最具工业意义的含钼矿物,广泛分布于各种内生钼矿床中。本文尝试性地对内生独立钼矿或共伴生钼矿矿床中的辉钼矿进行了ICP-MS稀土元素分析。结果表明,各矿床辉钼矿中稀土总量在10.99~3374μg/g,集中在10.99~600μg/g。时间上,中侏罗世—早白垩世辉钼矿稀土元素含量最高;空间上,北方矿床中辉钼矿的稀土总量较南方高;矿种组合上,独立钼矿、以钼为主的多金属矿中稀土总量要大于其他伴生钼矿矿床。辉钼矿稀土元素配分曲线具有多样性,不同矿集区内矿床成矿时代、矿床类型与矿种组合对稀土元素配分模式影响不明显。辉钼矿中明显富集轻稀土,具有强烈的Eu负异常(δEu=0.01~0.80)、Ce负异常(δCe=0.24~1.06,多数δCe值<1)和Sm正异常(δSm=1.29~79.42)。依据辉钼矿轻稀土富集程度、Sm和Eu等稀土元素异常特征,将辉钼矿稀土元素配分模式分为6类,反映了不同辉钼矿成因或成矿流体性质的差异性;依据LREE、HREE、δEu和δCe等特征,以及熔体/流体实验结果,推测成钼流体总体上是以富CO2、Cl-(个别还富含F-)和还原性气体成分的成矿流体。内生金属矿床中辉钼矿主要形成于还原性环境,但石英脉型矿床较斑岩型矿床形成条件明显氧化性增强。     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Pools,riffles, and channelization

The addition of regularly spaced deeps (pools) and shallows (riffles) that provide a variety of flow conditions, areal sorting of stream-bed material, cover for wildlife, and a positive aesthetic experience, may be desirable in many channel projects. Such designs will reduce adverse environmental impacts of stream channel modifications. Analysis of variance for pool-to-pool spacing data suggests that there is no significant difference with respect to channel width between pools that form in natural streams and those in streams affected by a variety of human uses. Short of channelization, which changes the channel width, pools and riffles, within limits, are not particularly sensitive to environmental stress. Experiments in Gum Branch near Charlotte, North Carolina, support the hypothesis that channel form and process evolve in harmony and that manipulation of cross-channel morphology can influence the development of desired channel processes. Planned manipulation of its channel form induced Gum Branch to develop as desired. Morphologic stability consisting of incipient point bars, pools, and riffles was maintained over a period of high magnitude flood events, only to be degraded later by a wave of sediment derived from upstream construction and stream-bank failures. Thus, environmentally desirable channel morphology in urban streams cannot remain stable if changes in the sediment load or storm-water runoff exceed the limits of the stream's ability to make internal adjustments while maintaining morphologic stability.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians