Climatic Warming and Humidification in the Arid Region of Northwest China: Multi-Scale Characteristics and Impacts on Ecological Vegetation

The climatic warming and humidification observed in the arid region of Northwest China(ARNC) and their impacts on the ecological environment have become an issue of concern. The associated multi-scale characteristics and environmental responses are currently poorly understood. Using data from satellite remote sensing, field observations, and the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6, this paper systematically analyzes the process and scale characteristics of the climatic warming and humidification in the ARNC and their impacts on ecological vegetation. The results show that not only have temperature and precipitation increased significantly in the ARNC over the past 60 years, but the increasing trend of precipitation is also obviously intensifying. The dryness index, which comprehensively considers the effects of precipitation and temperature, has clearly decreased, and the trend in humidification has increased. Spatially, the trend of temperature increase has occurred over the entire region, while 93.4% of the region has experienced an increase in precipitation, suggesting a spatially consistent climatic warming and humidification throughout the ARNC. Long-term trends and interannual changes in temperature and precipitation dominate the changes in climatic warming and humidification. Compared to interannual variations in temperature, the trend change of temperature contributes more to the overall temperature change. However, the contribution of interannual variations in precipitation is greater than that of the precipitation trend to the overall precipitation change. The current climatic warming and humidification generally promote the growth of ecological vegetation. Since the 1980 s,82.4% of the regional vegetation has thrived. The vegetation index has a significant positive correlation with precipitation and temperature. However, it responds more significantly to interannual precipitation variation, although the vegetation response varies significantly under different types of land use. The warming and humidification of the climate in the ARNC are probably related to intensifications of the westerly wind circulation and ascending air motions.They are expected to continue in the future, although the strength of the changes will probably be insufficient to significantly change the basic climate pattern in the ARNC. The results of this study provide helpful information for decision making related to China's "Belt and Road" development strategies.     

青藏高原及其周边地区降水的水汽来源变化研究进展

近几十年来,随着全球气候变暖,青藏高原降水整体呈现增加趋势,气候暖湿化趋势明显;与此同时,位于青藏高原东南缘的中国西南地区整体上呈现暖干化趋势,干旱事件频发。探讨青藏高原及其周边地区降水的水汽来源变化、揭示降水趋势性变化的原因已经成为当前研究热点。本文评述了近年来青藏高原降水的水汽来源研究,重点关注青藏高原变湿、西南地区变干的水汽来源变化原因以及青藏高原南北水汽来源差异,讨论了尚未解决的科学问题,展望了未来研究方向。现有研究表明,青藏高原以西的西风带控制区蒸散发贡献的水汽整体呈现减少趋势,青藏高原以南和以东的季风控制区蒸散发贡献的水汽整体呈现增加趋势,上述水汽源区贡献变化导致了青藏高原及其周边不同区域降水趋势性变化的差异。展望未来,水汽来源分析的模型和数据需要进一步验证及减少不确定性,青藏高原下垫面和蒸散发变化对周边地区降水的影响机制研究有待加强,全球变化与青藏高原降水水汽来源变化的关系尚需深入分析。     

Response of hydrological cycle to recent climate changes in the Tibetan Plateau

The Tibetan Plateau (TP) surfaces have been experiencing an overall rapid warming and wetting while wind speed and solar radiation have been declining in the last three decades. This study investigated how climate changes influenced the hydrological cycle on the TP during 1984??2006. To facilitate the analysis, a land surface model was used to simulate surface water budget at all CMA (China Meteorological Administration) stations on the TP. The simulated results were first validated against observed ground temperature and observation-derived heat flux on the western TP and observed discharge trends on the eastern TP. The response of evaporation and runoff to the climate changes was then analyzed. Major finding are as follows. (1) Surface water balance has been changed in recent decades. Observed precipitation shows insignificant increasing trends in central TP and decreasing trends along the TP periphery while evaporation shows overall increasing trends, leading to decreased discharge at major TP water resource areas (semi-humid and humid zones in the eastern and southern TP). (2) At the annual scale, evaporation is water-limited in dry areas and energy-limited (radiation and air temperature) in wet areas; these constraints can be interpreted by the Budyko-curve. Evaporation in autumns and winters was strongly controlled by soil water storage in summers, weakening the dependence of evaporation on precipitation at seasonal scales. (3) There is a complementary effect between the simulated actual evaporation and potential evaporation, but this complementary relationship may deviate from Bouchet??s hypothesis when vapor pressure deficit (or air temperature) is too low, which suppresses the power of vapor transfer.     

长白山地区遥感生态指数时空变化及其气候响应

利用Google Earth Engine(GEE)云平台，在原有遥感生态指数（RSEI）基础上，选用增强型植被指数（EVI）代替原绿度指标中的NDVI，构建并计算2001—2020年长白山地区植被生长季RSEI，采用回归分析、波动分析、Hurst指数等方法，分析长白山地区RSEI时空变化特征并探讨其气候影响因素。研究表明：（1）2001—2020年长白山地区RSEI波动缓慢上升，生态环境质量整体呈上升趋势。RSEI多年均值空间分布具有明显的分异性，长白山保护开发区生态环境质量较好，通化市、白山市大部较差。（2）近20年长白山地区RSEI稳定性较差，生态环境质量较脆弱。未来生态环境趋势总体向好，但局部地区仍存在持续恶化态势。（3）长白山地区RSEI主要受降水影响较大，与降水呈显著正相关，与气温相关性不强。     

1982~1999年中国地区叶面积指数变化及其与气候变化的关系

利用1982～1999年AVHRR Pathfinder卫星遥感观测的植被叶面积指数（leaf area index,LAI）资料和中国730个气象台站的温度、降水观测资料,研究了中国不同地区（东北地区、华北地区、长江流域、华南地区和西南地区）LAI的季节、生长季和年变化,及其与气候变化（温度、降水）的关系。结果表明,在中国大部分地区,年平均LAI和生长季平均LAI均是增加的。由于区域和季节气候的差异,LAI变化趋势具有明显的空间和季节非均一性。从区域平均的角度来看,不同地区年和生长季平均LAI都有增加趋势,并且在华南地区增加最快。因而,在全球变化背景下,华南地区可能是潜在的碳汇。在季节尺度上,各地区区域平均LAI基本上都是增加的,并且都在春季增加最快。温度变化是LAI变化的主要原因。但是人类活动如农业活动、城市化等对华北平原、长江三角洲和珠江三角洲等地区LAI变化的作用不容忽视。     

Specification of thermal growing season in temperate China from 1960 to 2009

A number of studies have reported an extension of the thermal growing season in response to the warming climate during recent decades. However, the magnitude of extension depends heavily on the threshold temperature used: for a given area, a small change in the threshold temperature results in significant differences in the calculated thermal growing season. Here, we specified the threshold temperature for determining the thermal growing season of local vegetation across 326 meteorological stations in temperate China by using vegetation phenology based on satellite imagery. We examined changes in the start, end, and length of the thermal growing season from 1960 to 2009. The threshold temperatures for determining the start and end increased strongly with increasing mean annual temperature. Averaged across temperate China, the start of the thermal growing season advanced by 8.4?days and the end was delayed by 5.7?days, resulting in a 14.1-day extension from 1960 to 2009. The thermal growing season was intensively prolonged (by 0.59?day/year) since the mid-1980s owing to accelerated warming during this period. This extension was similar to that determined by a spatially fixed threshold temperature of 5?°C, but the spatial patterns differed, owing to differences in the threshold temperature and to intra-annual heterogeneity in climate warming. This study highlights the importance of specifying the temperature threshold for local vegetation when assessing the influences of climate change on thermal growing season, and provides a method for determining the threshold temperature from satellite-derived vegetation phenology.     

卫星遥感反演降水研究进展简述

高质量的降水数据是开展天气、气候、水文、生态等研究的重要基础。由于传统地面雨量计站观测和地基雷达观测受站点数量和地形条件的限制,很难实现大范围降水的均匀观测,而卫星反演降水能有效弥补传统观测站网的缺点。根据卫星反演降水的原理,简要概述了可见光、红外、微波、多种传感器组合的卫星降水反演算法、总结了5种不同卫星数据反演产品的优点和适用性。改进降水反演算法和加强多种传感器反演降水产品的融合,才能获得更高精度和更大覆盖范围的降水产品,这也是未来一段时间内卫星遥感反演降水的趋势。     

青藏高原土壤湿度的变化特征及其对中国东部降水影响的研究进展

青藏高原土壤湿度受积雪与冻土的共同影响,能够记忆长时间的陆面干湿过程,是气候变化的重要因子,对随后的中国东部降水有预测意义。由于高原观测站点稀少,土壤湿度观测资料匮乏,致使现有相关研究大多是基于再分析资料、模式资料和卫星遥感资料(统称替代资料)进行的,且所得结论既有差异,也存在不确定性。因此本文首先综述了各种土壤湿度替代资料的适用性对比研究,进而讨论了青藏高原地区土壤湿度的变化特征及其对我国东部气候的影响。现有研究表明:1)资料对比研究指出,现有的各种替代资料对高原土壤湿度存在明显的高估或低估现象,且评估结论受评估指标和插值方法不同的影响。相对而言,SSM/I和风云3B的土壤湿度产品与实际观测资料相关性较好。2)高原土壤湿度具有多时间尺度变化特征和空间非均匀性,在年变化上具有显著的融冻特征,年代际变化趋势和年际特征呈现显著的区域性差异。SSM/I资料表明春季高原主体土壤湿度的年代际变化趋势呈现为增加的特征,与高原的增暖相一致;年际变率存在东、西两个高值区,与其相关的潜热、感热通量能共同激发遥相关波列影响我国长江流域降水;同时高原土壤湿度在垂直方向上具有一致性,在空间分布上具有南部边缘最大、由东南向西北递减的特征。3)前人对高原土壤湿度影响中国东部降水的结论各有不同,其可能原因之一是采用的替代资料及其适用性不同,其二是模式试验中忽略土壤湿度的空间差异性而带来的误差等。相关问题需要进一步深入研究。     

近50a江淮地区梅雨期水汽输送特征研究

利用1958—2007年ERA再分析风场及气压场资料和APHRO高分辨率逐日降水资料,对近50 a来梅雨期水汽输送的时空特征及其与江淮地区降水的关系进行了研究,发现各条水汽通道对江淮地区梅雨期降水强度及范围的影响程度均不同。梅雨期影响我国降水的水汽输送有显著的年际变化,并且水汽输送强弱年对应江淮地区降水强度也有明显差异。相关分析及合成差值的结果显示,西太平洋水汽输送贡献更大,且西太平洋水汽输送(东南通道)增强时,江淮地区降水增多。印度洋水汽输送的加强会减弱太平洋的水汽输送从而使得江淮少雨。在全球变暖的背景下,西太平洋的水汽输送对降水的增强作用有所减弱而印度洋输送所导致降水强度减弱的范围则明显扩大。自1980年起,江淮降水出现缓慢增多的趋势与全球变暖所导致的东亚环流异常进而影响水汽输送异常相关。     

气候影响下的雅砻江生态保护红线区生态环境与功能遥感监测评价

选取与生态环境相关的10个遥感反演指数,应用主成分分析法,构建生态环境状况指数（Remote Sensing Ecological Environment Index,RSEI）和水源涵养功能指数（Water Conservation Index,WCI）并进行等级划分,评估了2000~2019年雅砻江源生态保护红线区生态环境状况、水源涵养能力及其时空格局变化。结果表明:（1）雅砻江源生态保护红线区RSEI东部略好于西部,评价等级优的区域面积占比为15.96%、良占51.28%、一般占27.61%、较差占5.13%。RESI变化趋势呈轻度改善的地区占比为52.96%,其中东北部以轻度改善为主,东部以轻度退化为主,生态环境极显著退化区域分布零散。（2）雅砻江源生态保护红线区水源涵养生态功能保持良好,北部优于南部,WCI评价等级为差、较差和一般的区域主要分布在中部和南部部分地区,较为零散。WCI评价等级优的区域面积占比为43.22%、良占35.71%、一般占17.45%、较差占3.48%、差占0.02%。WCI变化趋势在西北部以轻度改善为主且空间差异较大,在南部以显著改善为主。（3）1990年以来,研究区气温上升速率为0.56℃/10 a,生长季平均气温上升速率为0.1℃/10 a,降水量上升速率为27.7 mm/10 a,生长季平均降水量上升速率为83.5 mm/10 a。（4）2000~2019年雅砻江源生态保护红线区气候暖湿化对于植被恢复性生长、碳储和减少水土流失均十分有利,生态环境状况和水源涵养功能得以持续改善。      

海表温度的增暖趋势和自然变率对长江中下游夏季极端降水强度的影响

极端降水引起的洪、涝等灾害每年给我国带来极大的人员伤亡和经济损失。全球增暖使极端降水事件发生的频率增加,强度增强。但是针对不同区域极端降水事件,其贡献究竟如何还有待于进一步认识。本文以我国长江中下游地区的极端降水事件为研究对象,通过典型年份夏季区域极端降水过程的水汽收支特征,探讨海表温度（SST）的增暖趋势和自然变率强迫对该区域典型极端降水强度的影响效应。结果表明:（1）极端降水过程及其夏季都伴随着区域整层大气的水汽辐合,且水汽辐合发生在经向方向。西北太平洋异常反气旋式环流,在区域南边界形成了稳定的西南风异常的水汽输送。（2）典型极端降水过程发生的夏季,SST在赤道印度洋和热带大西洋为强正异常,主要为增暖趋势的贡献,赤道中东太平洋SST异常表现为La Ni?a型。（3）SST增暖趋势和自然变率的数值敏感性试验表明,1998、2017和2020年的SST增暖趋势强迫的区域水汽辐合分别是其自然变率强迫的83%、210%和107%,SST增暖趋势比自然变率的影响更为重要。（4）SST增暖趋势和自然变率都是通过强迫西北太平洋异常反气旋式环流,引起长江中下游区域南边界异常的西南水汽输送,是导致极端降水发生的主要过程。     

2000—2020年呼伦贝尔地区归一化植被指数时空变化及其对气候的响应

利用2000—2020年MOD13Q1和气象观测数据, 结合Sen趋势分析、M-K显著性检验、变异系数、Hurst指数、相关系数等对呼伦贝尔地区归一化植被指数(NDVI)时空变化及气候响应进行分析。结果表明: 呼伦贝尔地区多年生长季平均NDVI为0.63, 平均年变化倾向率为0.028/10 a, 大部分地区呈增加趋势, 其中大兴安岭森林大部及岭西耕地增加显著。呼伦贝尔地区生长季NDVI的平均变异系数为0.08, 其中呼伦贝尔草原西部的波动较大。Hurst指数表明, 呼伦贝尔地区生长季NDVI整体变化呈反持续性趋势, 结合现有NDVI变化趋势, 未来将呈下降趋势, 对生态环境的保护工作较为不利。大兴安岭森林生长季NDVI与气温呈正相关, 耕地与草原区呈负相关, 而呼伦贝尔大部分地区的生长季NDVI与降水普遍呈正相关, 其中呼伦贝尔草原和大兴安岭两麓耕地的生长季NDVI与降水相关显著, 说明气温是制约北部大兴安岭森林生长的主要因素, 而降水是制约呼伦贝尔草原生态平衡和农牧业发展的主要因素。     

华南前汛期降水异常与水汽输送的关系

采用1958-2000年华南57站前汛期日降水资料和NCEP／NCAR逐日水汽输送再分析资料，分析了华南前汛期降水异常与水汽输送的关系，并对旱、涝年进行了比较分析。结果表明：华南地区经向水汽输送的异常变化将导致该地区的异常旱涝，而纬向水汽输送的异常变化只导致该地区出现小范围的降水异常。旱年和涝年的异常水汽输送不是简单的反位相关系。来自印度洋和西太平洋的水汽对华南地区前汛期的降水异常没有明显的作用，南海(主要是其北部)才是华南降水异常的关键区。     

多时间尺度下黑龙江省1980—2014年干湿演变特征及主导因子分析

利用黑龙江省1980—2014年28个气象台站常规观测资料,计算得到全省的相对湿润度指数。运用ArcGIS反距离权重空间插值法、趋势系数及相关分析法对全省作物生长季及各个季节干旱分布、干湿发展趋势及主要影响因素进行具体分析。结果表明:就相对湿润度指数年际分布而言,生长季干旱主要集中在2000—2010年,夏季和秋季干旱主要集中在1995年之后,春季干旱则在全时段均有发生,其中重旱和特旱居多;就相对湿润度指数变化趋势而言,春季全省整体呈微湿润化的趋势,冬季呈显著地湿润化发展趋势,其余时段则呈现干旱化发展,但不同时段空间差异显著;分析降雨量、潜在蒸散量与相对湿润度指数的相关系数发现,降雨量始终是黑龙江省生长季及各个季节相对湿润度指数变化的主导因子,但夏季潜在蒸散量的影响有所增加。     

Response of rangeland vegetation to snow cover dynamics in Nepal Trans Himalaya

Global climate change is expected to result in greater variation in snow cover and subsequent impacts on land surface hydrology and vegetation production in the high Trans Himalayan region (THR). This paper examines how the changes in timing and duration of snow cover affect the spatio-temporal pattern of rangeland phenology and production in the region. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) 16-day normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data from 2000 to 2009 and concurrent snow cover, precipitation and temperature data were analyzed. In contrast to numerous studies which have suggested that an earlier start of the season and an extension of the length of the growing season in mid and higher latitude areas due to global warming, this study shows a delay in the beginning of the growing season and the peak time of production, and a decline in the length of growing season in the drier part of THR following a decline and a delay in snow cover. Soil moisture in the beginning of the growing season and consequent rangeland vegetation production in drier areas of the THR was found to be strongly dependent upon the timing and duration of snow cover. However, in the wetter part of the THR, an earlier start of season, a delay in end of season and hence a longer growing season was observed, which could be attributed to warming in winter and early spring and cooling in summer and late spring and changes in timing of snow melt. The study shows a linear positive relationship between rangeland vegetation production and snow cover in the drier parts of THR, a quadratic relationship near to permanent snow line, and a negative linear relationship in wetter highlands. These findings suggest that, while temperature is important, changes in snow cover and precipitation pattern play more important roles in snow-fed, drier regions for rangeland vegetation dynamics.     

Evaluation of CMIP5 Earth System Models in Reproducing Leaf Area Index and Vegetation Cover over the Tibetan Plateau

The abilities of 12 earth system models (ESMs) from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase5 (CMIP5) to reproduce satellite-derived vegetation biological variables over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) were examined. The results show that most of the models tend to overestimate the observed leaf area index (LAI) and vegetation carbon above the ground, with the possible reasons being overestimation of photosynthesis and precipitation. The model simulations show a consistent increasing trend with observed LAI over most of the TP during the reference period of 1986-2005, while they fail to reproduce the downward trend around the headstream of the Yellow River shown in the observation due to their coarse resolutions. Three of the models: CCSM4, CESM1-BGC, and NorESM1-ME, which share the same vegetation model, show some common strengths and weaknesses in their simulations according to our analysis. The model ensemble indicates a reasonable spatial distribution but overestimated land coverage, with a significant decreasing trend (-1.48% per decade) for tree coverage and a slight increasing trend (0.58% per decade) for bare ground during the period 1950-2005. No significant sign of variation is found for grass. To quantify the relative performance of the models in representing the observed mean state, seasonal cycle, and interannual variability, a model ranking method was performed with respect to simulated LAI. INMCM4, bcc-csm-1.1m, MPI-ESM-LR, IPSL CM5A-LR, HadGEM2-ES, and CCSM4 were ranked as the best six models in reproducing vegetation dynamics among the 12 models.     

An annual cycle of vegetation in a GCM. Part II: global impacts on climate and hydrology

The Met Office Hadley Centre Unified Model (HadAM3) with the tiled version of the Met Office Surface Exchange Scheme (MOSES2) land surface scheme is used to assess the impact of a comprehensive imposed vegetation annual cycle on global climate and hydrology. Two 25-year numerical experiments are completed: the first with structural vegetation characteristics (Leaf Area Index, LAI, canopy height, canopy water capacity, canopy heat capacity, albedo) held at annual mean values, the second with realistic seasonally varying vegetation characteristics. It is found that the seasonalities of latent heat flux and surface temperature are widely affected. The difference in latent heat flux between experiments is proportional to the difference in LAI. Summer growing season surface temperatures are between 1 and 4 K lower in the phenology experiment over a majority of grid points with a significant vegetation annual cycle. During winter, midlatitude surface temperatures are also cooler due to brighter surface albedo over low LAI surfaces whereas during the dry season in the tropics, characterized by dormant vegetation, surface temperatures are slightly warmer due to reduced transpiration. Precipitation is not as systematically affected as surface temperature by a vegetation annual cycle, but enhanced growing season precipitation rates are seen in regions where the latent heat flux (evaporation) difference is large. Differences between experiments in evapotranspiration, soil moisture storage, the timing of soil thaw, and canopy interception generate regional perturbations to surface and sub-surface runoff annual cycles in the model.     

全球变暖趋缓背景下辽宁夏季降水变化及水汽输送特征

利用中国气象数据网提供的中国地面气候资料日值数据集（V3.0）中的降水数据以及ERA-Interim逐月再分析资料对全球变暖趋缓背景下（1998年后）辽宁夏季降水变化特征及水汽输送对其的影响进行研究。结果表明：全球增暖减缓背景下,辽宁夏季降水量存在一定的增加趋势,但趋势较弱,其中辽宁南部降水的增加趋势较其他地区显著,对辽宁整体降水变化的贡献程度相对较高。辽宁南北边界的夏季水汽通量与降水量呈现高度的正相关性。其中,南边界的相关性程度最显著。辽宁上空纬向水汽净输入量对降水的贡献较小,经向水汽通量对于降水的贡献较纬向高且其高值区主要位于辽宁东部及南部地区的对流层低层,对当地降水存在影响。辽宁南部对流层整层的经向水汽通量与辽宁降水量存在显著正相关,通过分析大气环流背景场的变化对辽宁经向水汽输送的影响分析,西太平洋副热带高压脊线的逐渐北移是造成辽宁经向水汽通量增加的重要因素,从而直接影响辽宁降水量的变化趋势,导致辽宁夏季降水在全球变暖减缓背景下存在一定的增加趋势。     

The Interactive Climate and Vegetation Along the Pole-Equator Belts Simulated by a Global Coupled Model

The interaction between climate and vegetation along four Pole-Equator-Pole （PEP） belts were explored using a global two-way coupled model, AVIM-GOALS, which links the ecophysiological processes at the land surface with the general circulation model （GCM）. The PEP belts are important in linking the climate change with the variation of sea and land, including terrestrial ecosystems. Previous PEP belts studies have mainly focused on the paleoclimate variation and its reconstruction. This study analyzes and discusses the interaction between modern climate and vegetation represented by leaf area index （LAI） and net primary production （NPP）. The results show that the simulated LAI variation, corresponding to the observed LAI variation, agrees with the peak-valley variation of precipitation in these belts. The annual mean NPP simulated by the coupled model is also consistent with PIK NPP data in its overall variation trend along the four belts, which is a good example to promote global ecological studies by coupling the climate and vegetation models. A large discrepancy between the simulated and estimated LAI emerges to the south of 15°N along PEP 3 and to the south of 18°S in PEP 1S, and the discrepancy for the simulated NPP and PIK data in the two regions is relatively smaller in contrast to the LAI difference. Precipitation is a key factor affecting vegetation variation, and the overall trend of LAI and NPP corresponds more obviously to precipitation variation than temperature change along most parts of these PEP belts.     

Recent trends in regional air temperature and precipitation and links to global climate change in the Maharlo watershed,Southwestern Iran

Trends in air temperature and precipitation data are investigated for linkages to global warming and climate change. After checking for serial correlation with trend-free pre-whitening procedure, the Mann–Kendall test is used to detect monotonic trends and the Mann–Whitney test is used for trend step change. The case study is Maharlo watershed, Southwestern Iran, representing a semi-arid environment. Data are for the 1951–2011 period, from four temperature sites and seven precipitation sites. A homogeneity test investigates regional similarity of the time series data. The results include mean annual, mean annual maximum and minimum and seasonal analysis of air temperature and precipitation data. Mean annual temperature results indicate an increasing trend, while a non-significant trend in precipitation is observed in all the stations. Furthermore, significant phase change was detected in mean annual air temperature trend of Shiraz station in 1977, indicating decreasing trend during 1951–1976 and increasing trend during 1977–2011. The annual precipitation analysis for Shiraz shows a non-significant decrease during 1951–1976 and 1977–2011. The result of homogeneity test reveals that the studied stations form one homogeneous region. While air temperature trends appear as regional linkage to global warming/global climate change, more definite outcome requires analysis of longer time series data on precipitation and air temperature.