A microslip model for the seismic response analysis of drained cohesionless soil deposits

Constitutive equations for drained cohesionless soils under triaxial stress states, based on a microslip model with internal friction, are proposed and applied to the analysis of the seismic response of soil deposits. The microslips, assumed localized in the discontinuity surfaces passing through the particle-to-particle contacts, describe the effects of the sliding and rolling between grains of sand. Once the response of the model under cyclic shearing stresses and strains superimposed on the geostatic stress state has been analysed, the constitutive equations are applied to a one-dimensional shear model for the dynamic analysis of the layered deposits. An application to an instrumented soil deposit is then developed, the experimental results of which refer to both strong and weak motion earthquakes; the comparisons between the experimental and theoretical results point out the peculiarities and validity limits of the model. The model here developed may be applied also to the analysis of two- and three-dimensional sites.     

The micromechanics of friction in a granular layer

A grain bridge model is used to provide a physical interpretation of the rate- and state-dependent friction parameters for the simple shear of a granular layer. This model differs from the simpler asperity model in that it recognizes the difference between the fracture of a grain and the fracture of an adhesion between grains, and it explicitly accounts for dilation in the granular layer. The model provides an explanation for the observed differences in the friction of granular layers deformed between rough surfaces and those deformed between smooth surfaces and for the evolution of the friction parameters with displacement. The observed evolution from velocity strengthening to velocity weakening with displacement is interpreted as being due to the change in the micromechanics of strain accommodation from grain crushing to slip between adjacent grains; this change is associated with the observed evolution of a fractal grain structure.     

Characterisation of Tensile Damage in Rock Samples Induced by Different Stress Paths

Cracks, induced by different stress states, are studied systematically on thin slices of crinoidal limestone samples. Samples damaged by tension are compared to samples in which first damage is induced by compressive stresses, followed by tensile stresses. To quantify the effect of the compressive stresses, samples only damaged by compression are also studied. The tensile stresses cause the occurrence of an intergranular crack. When the sample is first damaged by compressive stresses, former induced damage influences the growth of this crack. It results in an intergranular crack with a zigzag profile. The average orientation of the intergranular crack is, however, the same as in the samples damaged by tension only.     

The Variation of Stresses due to Aseismic Sliding and its Effect on Seismic Activity

— Numerical simulation of recurring large interplate earthquakes in a subduction zone is conducted to explore the effects of aseismic sliding on the variation of stresses and the activity of small earthquakes. The frictional force obeying a rate- and state-dependent friction law is assumed to act on the plate interface in a 2-D model of uniform elastic half-space. The simulation results show that large earthquakes repeatedly occur at a constant time interval on a shallow part of the plate interface and that aseismic sliding migrates from the upper aseismic zone as well as from the lower aseismic zone into the central part of the seismogenic zone before the occurrence of a large interplate earthquake. This spatiotemporal variation of aseismic sliding significantly perturbs the stresses in the overriding plate and in the subducting oceanic plate, leading to the precursory seismic quiescence in the overriding plate and the activation of the intermediate-depth earthquakes of down-dip tension type. After the occurrence of a large interplate earthquake, the activity of the intermediate-depth earthquakes of down-dip compression type in the subducting slab is expected to increase and migrate downward. This is because the downward propagation of postseismic sliding causes the downward migration of compressional-stress increase in the down-dip direction of the plate interface. The simulation result further indicates that episodic events of aseismic sliding may occur when the spatial distributions of friction parameters are significantly nonuniform. The variation of stresses due to episodic sliding is expected to cause seismicity changes.     

Flow deformation of liquefied sand under constant shear load and its application to analysis of flow slide of infinite slope

This paper intended to evaluate the behavior of saturated sand and sloped ground subjected to flow failure with seepage of pore water in the ground after earthquake and the resultant liquefaction. Triaxial compression tests of sand with constant deviator stress but changing of pore pressure and volume of the specimens were conducted in this study. It was revealed that the relation between the volume change and the amount of shear strain during deformation depended on the initial density of the sand but it did not much depend on shear stress and initial confining stress levels. Based on this test results and numerical analysis of the seepage of pore water in liquefied ground, a methodology was proposed to predict the deformation of inclined ground due to liquefaction.     

单轴压缩下干燥和饱水岩石中超声P波的衰减

根据脉冲传播和频谱比方法的基本原理建立了一套超声波衰减和波速测量系统。研究了单轴压缩下超声P波在干燥和饱水的小浪底砂岩和房山大理岩中的衰减和速度。常压下,水饱和样品的Q_P值低于干燥样品。初始加载时,在大多数情况下,Q_p值明显增加即衰减减小;当应力水平达破裂强度50-60％后,岩石开始膨胀,Q_p减小即衰减增加;临近破裂Q_p减至最小。Q_p的变化量达一个数量级。单轴压缩下,在干燥和饱水的砂岩、大理岩中,V_p分别增加为27％和28％,44％和11％。径向Q_p和V_p随单轴压力的变化比轴向小得多,呈现明显各向异性。在本实验条件下,波在裂纹表面的摩擦耗散是主要的衰减机制,水的作用主要是潮湿和润滑裂纹表面,促进滑动,增加衰减。     

三轴压缩下两类砂岩变形破坏的实验研究

本文讨论了围压高达700MPa的条件下,发生实验变形的长石砂岩和石英砂岩的变形模式和变形机制。完整长石砂岩的脆延过渡带在200—400MPa,完整石英砂岩的脆延过渡带在250—350MPa,长石砂岩在600MPa围压以上出现高压脆化现象;两类切口岩石的稳滑粘滑过渡界限分别是200MPa和150MPa。不同的变形模式主要起因于程度不同的碎裂机制。文中还对矿物成分的影响、脆性行为之延伸等有关问题进行了简要讨论     

Mechanical compaction and ultrasonic velocity of sands with different texture and mineralogical composition

This study presents the results of experimental compaction while measuring ultrasonic velocities of sands with different grain size, shape, sorting and mineralogy. Uniaxial mechanical compaction tests up to a maximum of 50 MPa effective stress were performed on 29 dry sand aggregates derived from eight different sands to measure the rock properties. A good agreement was found between the Gassmann saturated bulk moduli of dry and brine saturated tests of selected sands. Sand samples with poor sorting showed low initial porosity while sands with high grain angularity had high initial porosity. The sand compaction tests showed that at a given stress well‐sorted, coarse‐grained sands were more compressible and had higher velocities (Vp and Vs) than fine‐grained sands when the mineralogy was similar. This can be attributed to grain crushing, where coarser grains lead to high compressibility and large grain‐to‐grain contact areas result in high velocities. At medium to high stresses the angular coarse to medium grained sands (both sorted sands and un‐sorted whole sands) showed high compaction and velocities (Vp and Vs). The small grain‐to‐grain contact areas promote higher deformation at grain contacts, more crushing and increased porosity loss resulting in high velocities. Compaction and velocities (Vp and Vs) increased with decreasing sorting in sands. However, at the same porosity, the velocities in whole sands were slightly lower than in the well‐sorted sands indicating the presence of loose smaller grains in‐between the framework grains. Quartz‐poor sands (containing less than 55% quartz) showed higher velocities (Vp and Vs) compared to that of quartz‐rich sands. This could be the result of sintering and enlargement of grain contacts of ductile mineral grains in the quartz‐poor sands increasing the effective bulk and shear stiffness. Tests both from wet measurements and Gassmann brine substitution showed a decreasing Vp/Vs ratio with increasing effective stress. The quartz‐rich sands separated out towards the higher side of the Vp/Vs range. The Gassmann brine substituted Vp and Vs plotted against effective stress provide a measure of the expected velocity range to be found in these and similar sands during mechanical compaction. Deviations of actual well log data from experimental data may indicate uplift, the presence of hydrocarbon, overpressure and/or cementation. Data from this study may help to model velocity‐depth trends and to improve the characterization of reservoir sands from well log data in a low temperature (<80–100^o C) zone where compaction of sands is mostly mechanical.     

白云母对岩盐断层带摩擦速度依赖性影响的实验研究

为更好地理解层状硅酸盐对断层强度、滑动速度依赖性及地震活动特征的影响,利用双轴摩擦实验对含白云母岩盐断层带在干燥及含水条件下摩擦的速度依赖性进行了实验研究,并观测了摩擦滑动过程中的声发射,分析了断层带的微观结构.实验结果表明,干燥条件下含白云母岩盐断层带在0.1 ～ 100μm/s的速度范围内表现为黏滑和速度弱化,增大σ2会使断层带从速度弱化向速度强化转化,速度依赖性转换出现在0.1 μm/s,其中断层滑动表现为稳滑或应力释放时间较长的黏滑事件;含水条件下含白云母岩盐断层带在0.05 ～0.01μm/s的速度范围内表现为速度强化,0.1 ～10μm/s的速度范围内表现为速度弱化,50～100μm/s的速度范围内又转换为速度强化行为.含白云母岩盐断层带在干燥条件下一次黏滑伴随一个或一丛声发射事件,而在含水条件下与稳滑相对应,滑动过程中并未记录到声发射事件.显微结构观察表明,速度弱化域的主要变形机制是岩盐颗粒的脆性破裂和局部化的滑动;干燥条件下,速度强化域的主要变形机制是岩盐颗粒的均匀破裂;含水条件下2个速度强化域对应不同的微观机制,高速域的速度强化受控于岩盐颗粒在白云母相互连结形成的网状结构上的滑动及其均匀碎裂作用,而低速域的速度强化还受岩盐的压溶作用控制.通过与岩盐断层带摩擦实验结果对比可知,白云母的存在对于燥岩盐断层带摩擦滑动方式和速度依赖性没有显著影响,而在含水条件下白云母的存在使得岩盐断层带滑动趋于稳定.实验结果为分析含层状硅酸盐断层的强度和稳定性提供了依据.此外,在速度依赖性转换域上观察到的应力缓慢释放的现象进一步证实了在岩盐断层带摩擦滑动过程中观察到的现象,这对慢地震机制研究具有参考意义.     

Strain accumulation in sand due to cyclic loading: drained triaxial tests

Our aim is the prediction of the accumulation of strain and/or stress under cyclic loading with many (thousands to millions) cycles and relatively small amplitudes. A high-cycle constitutive model is used for this purpose. Its formulas are based on numerous cyclic tests. This paper describes drained tests with triaxial compression and uniaxial stress cycles. The influence of the strain amplitude, the average stress, the density, the cyclic preloading history and the grain size distribution on the direction and the intensity of strain accumulation is discussed.     

不同应力途径三轴压缩下岩石的声发射

在不同加载方式的三轴实验中,观测了济南辉长岩和北京昌平花岗岩的声发射(围压达1.3千巴).当最大主应力增加使岩样破坏时(A型),平均声发射率逐渐增加,离破裂强度约几百巴时声发射急剧增多.而当岩石处于一定的高应力状态,通过减小围压使岩样破坏时(B型),声发射的急剧增加仅出现在离破裂差应力20-30巴的情况下,而且这种破裂过程声发射总数只有 A 型的1/3左右.在 B 型加载情况下,从应力场的球张量部分(流体静压力)来看,是一个卸载过程,而从偏张量部分来看,是一个加载过程.这种卸载过程的存在很可能是造成声发射不同特征的主要原因.      

Comparison of seismic effects during deep tunnel excavation with different methods

The rapid release of strain energy is an important phenomenon leading to seismic events or rock failures during the excavation of deep rock.Through theoretical analysis of strain energy adjustment during blasting and mechanical excavation,and the interpretation of measured seismicity in the Jin-Ping Ⅱ Hydropower Station in China,this paper describes the characteristics of energy partition and induced seismicity corresponding to different energy release rates.The theoretical analysis indicates that part of the strain energy will be drastically released accompanied by violent crushing and fragmentation of rock under blast load,and this process will result in seismic events in addition to blasting vibration.The intensity of the seismicity induced by transient strain energy release highly depends on the unloading rate of in-situ stress.For mechanical excavation,the strain energy,which is mainly dissipated in the deformation of surrounding rock,releases smoothly,and almost no seismic events are produced in this gradual process.Field test reveals that the seismic energy transformed from the rock strain energy under high stress condition is roughly equal to that coming from explosive energy,and the two kinds of vibrations superimpose together to form the total blasting excavation-induced seismicity.In addition,the most intense seismicity is induced by the cut blasting delay; this delay contributes 50% of the total seismic energy released in a blast event.For mechanical excavation,the seismic energy of induced vibration(mainly the low intensity acoustic emission events or mechanical loading impacts),which accounts only for 1.5‰ of that caused by in-situ stress transient releasing,can be ignored in assessing the dynamic response of surrounding rock.     

微粒对多晶冰流变行为的影响——(Ⅱ)滞弹性行为

用反相直接加载的方法研究了微粒对多晶冰滞弹性的影响.结果表明：在较高频率时(1 Hz 和 10-1 Hz)，滞弹性应变与应力峰值呈线性关系；在较低频率时(10-2 Hz)，其应力/应变偏离线性关系.微粒在高频时(1 Hz)通过阻碍晶界滑移对晶界弛豫产生重要影响，增加了模量和降低了内耗.但微粒对低频时的位错弛豫没有明显的影响.通过滞弹性实验计算了非线性弛豫模型的两个重要参数，计算表明K值约为007 Pa，α值约为054.     

Modelling cyclic elastic behaviour of sands

The cyclic stress-strain behaviour of cohesionless soils is considered to be composed of elastic and inelastic components, and the cyclic elastic stress-strain relationships for one type of uniform sand are investigated by conducting isotropic and laterally constrained compression tests under low frequency cyclic loads. The effects of relative density, stress history, and stress state on the cyclic elastic behaviour are studied. Simple and practically applicable elastic stress-strain models are developed based on Hertzian contact theory. It was observed in both types of tests that elastic strains can accurately be modelled by a power function of stresses.     

Structural superplastic creep and linear viscosity in the earth's mantle

The rheology of dry polycrystalline olivine is examined by adopting a hyperbolic sine flow law (which reduces to a power law below 3 kbars) for high stress behavior, and a model for diffusion accommodated, coherent, grain boundary sliding (structural superplastic creep) for low stress behavior. The model for superplastic creep gives a linear relation between stress and strain rate and is consistent with the behavior of polycrystalline olivine during ductile faulting experiments (Post, 1973). For any given stable grain size, linear superplastic creep is promoted by relatively low stress and temperature. For a 1 -cm grain size and a homologous temperature between 0.6 and 0.8, superplastic creep dominates below transition stresses between 402 and 25 bars, respectively. Transition stresses are higher for smaller grain size and lower temperature. If grain size is stress dependent, superplastic creep is non-linear and dominates above a stress of 300 bars. Below that stress, relatively lower temperatures promote superplastic creep. Grain size may be stabilized by either physical or kinetic inhibition of grain growth, thereby allowing linear superplastic creep in the mantle. Results suggest that superplastic creep can dominate in most of the upper mantle except possibly for the asthenosphere where homologous temperatures are maximal and hyperbolic sine law creep can dominate. Mantle diapirism is at least in part accomplished by superplastic flow above and along the margins of the rising diapir.     

沙土在孔隙水注入实验中渗透剪切破坏

前人曾指出液化后伴随着超孔隙水压重新分配的渗透会引起流体破坏的可能性。为了研究这一现象,利用实验室三轴试验将孔隙水注入土壤检测了土壤的渗透剪切破坏。该实验是在各项异性的固结作用后保持差应力,使用孔隙水控制装置在体积不变的应变控制条件下将孔隙水注入。实验中所用的材料是在1995年神户地震时被液化的常规洁净细砂和风化的花岗岩土壤。本文以实验结果为基础,讨论了由孔隙水注入引起的渗透剪切破坏判据和导致后液化行为的剪切应变发展特征。     

Acoustic emission during high-temperature frictional sliding

Summary Acoustic emissions during high temperture frictional sliding in faulted granite were detected with a piezoelectric transducer plced outside the furnace and pressure vessel. Suitable choice of materials allowed the transmission of signals sufficiently large for measurement and analysis. Acoustic emissions were also monitored during the fracture runs at room temprature and could be compared with earlier studies. As observed previously, the emission rate increased dramatically prior to failure and the Ishimoto-Iida relationship between emission amplitude,A, and number of emissions,N(A), of amplitude,A. i.e., LogN(A)=K–(b+1)logA, was followed. The constant,b, was typically about 1.4, higher than the value of 1 or less indicated by previous experimental and theoretical studies.Acoustic emissions were detected during frictional sliding at all temperatures from 25 °, to 700°C. The activity began at low stresses and acceerated as the stress increased. During slidin the emission rate was nearly constant (with large counts during stick-slip events) at a level which decreased with increasing temperature. This apparent decrease may be explained by a real decrease in the number of emissions or by an increase in attenuation at higher temperatures.The power-law relationship between amplitude and emission rate seemed to hold for sliding as for fracture. Highb-values, between 1.2 and 2.1, are in agreement with earlier studies and are little affected by temperature within the scatter of the measurements. Where the number of emissions allowed its measurement, theb-value of emissions during loading prior to slip was consistently, although only slightly higher than that during steady sliding.     

Effects of turbulence on the transport of individual particles as bedload in a gravel‐bed river

This study investigates the association between mean and turbulent flow variables and the movement of individual particles in a gravel‐bed river. The experimental design implemented in the Eaton‐North River (Québec, Canada) is based on the simultaneous observations at a high temporal resolution of both particle movements as bedload using an underwater video camera and of the streamwise and vertical flow velocity components using a vertical array of three electromagnetic current meters (ECMs). The frequency and distance of displacement of particles larger than 20 mm that were sliding or rolling on the bed were measured from a 10 minutes long film. Mean and turbulent flow properties obtained for periods without sediment transport are compared to those when particles were sliding and rolling. When particles are sliding, weak differences are present for the mean streamwise velocity and normal vertical stresses. Instantaneous Reynolds shear stresses are significantly lower for sliding events which was not expected but could be explained by the important dominance of Quadrant 3 events (inward interactions). When particles are rolling, only the vertical normal stresses show a weak difference from those observed in the absence of transport but they tend to occur when Quadrant 2 (ejections) dominate the flow field. For both sliding and rolling particles, vertical and/or streamwise fluid accelerations show high magnitude values when compared to periods without transport. For sliding particles, streamwise acceleration is mostly negative and combines most of the time with a positive vertical acceleration. For rolling particles, streamwise and vertical acceleration are predominantly of opposite sign. These results suggest that fluid acceleration or deceleration in the streamwise and vertical directions is affecting the pressure field around particles. In this study, fluid acceleration seems to play a more important role than Reynolds shear stress or normal stresses for bedload movements. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Experimental investigation on fluid characteristics of medium dense saturated fine sand in pre- and post-liquefaction

Liquefaction of saturated loose sand is a major cause of extensive damage to buildings and infrastructures during large earthquakes. A better understanding of the behaviour of liquefied soil is becoming increasingly necessary to mitigate earthquake damage, and the fluid method has become an increasingly popular means to study the behaviour of liquefied soils. The purpose of this study is to determine the fluid characteristics of liquefied fine sand. In this paper, the apparent viscosity was measured as an index of fluid characteristics using the shaking table tests of pre-liquefaction behaviour of saturated fine sand at approximately 45 % relative density; the relationship of apparent viscosity and shear strain rate on liquefying fine sand was indicated as a power-law shear-thinning non-Newtonian fluid; and liquefying fine sand has the alternating behaviour of shear dilatancy and compressibility during cyclic loading. Additionally, a series of a monotonic axial compression loading tests in an undrained manner were performed to measure the shear stress and excess pore pressure ratio relationship on the post-liquefaction saturated fine sand at approximately 50 % relative density. The fluid characteristics of post-liquefaction fine sand exhibits rate dependence and can be described by a combined fluid model of time-independent and time-dependent power-law functions; the time-independent viscous resistance is not relevant to the excess pore pressure ratio; but the time-dependent frictional resistance is closely related to the excess pore pressure ratio. Furthermore, the results of the verification tests demonstrate that the proposed fluid model has good applicability for the fluid behaviour of the post-liquefaction fine sand.     

雁列式断层变形过程中物理场演化的实验研究（一）

在双轴压缩条件下对挤压型和拉张型雁列式断层变形破坏过程中声发射、断层位移及应变场的时空演化进行了实验研究。研究表明，两类雁列式断层具有类似的变形破坏过程，即前期以雁列区的破裂贯通为主，后期以沿断层的滑动为主。但挤压型雁列区内可积累较高的应变能，有较强的应变释放和声发射活动，雁列区对滑动始终起着阻碍作用；而拉张型雁列区内难以产生快速的应变释放和较强的声发射活动，雁列区对后期的滑动也无明显的阻碍作用。两类雁列区贯通所引起的失稳均有明显的前兆，而在随后滑动过程中失稳前兆的出现，取决于断层不同部位或段落之间是否有应变传递