生态补偿空间选择与分配的重要性及研究动态

指出生态补偿标准的关键或实质是空间选择与分配问题,并根据国内生态补偿项目运行的独特环境,围绕补偿效益这一内在目标,分析生态补偿空间选择与分配的重要性;论述与比较了国际与国内的相关研究动向;结合一个生态公益林补偿配置的研究框架,指出了政府主导型生态补偿空间优化配置的解决方向．     

Study of Ecological Compensation for Paddy Fields: Oriented towards Eco-environmental Restoration

Agricultural land provides not only food and fiber (an important element of food security), but also serves as a non-market commodity with characteristic externalities and public services. However, there are also many negative impacts on environment of the paddy production. Thus, Payments for paddy ecosystem services encourage farmers to engage in ecological or organic agricultural practices and agro-ecological/environmental supply. However, compared with forest, wetland, and pasture, the eco-function and ecosystem services of paddy fields have gotten insufficient attention. It is necessary to establish an eco-compensation mechanism for paddy fields that boosts behavior that protects farms to benefit the ecosystem. Based on a review of eco-compensation for paddy fields, this paper proposes the policy game framework of eco-compensation for paddy fields, which is oriented to ecological restoration. Secondly, this paper introduces methods for determination of compensation standards, including the cost the farmers’ willingness to accept, and the ecological benefits of adopting environmental friendly farming practices. And finally, this paper puts forward policy recommendations for eco-compensation for paddy ecosystems.     

Factors Affecting the Willingness of Farmers to Accept Eco-compensation in the Qianxi Chestnut Agroforestry System,Hebei

Ecological compensation plays an important role in promoting ecological protection. Identifying factors affecting the willingness of farmers to accept eco-compensation has become a focus of ecological economics. The Qianxi traditional chestnut agricultural heritage system is a typical agroforestry system in China and adapts the local environment well. However, local farmers concentrate on chestnut monocultures, driven by short-term profits. The local ecological environment is very fragile. We surveyed 100 local rural households. Based on face-to-face interviews and questionnaires and model assessment, we analyzed factors affecting the willingness of farmers to accept eco-compensation in the Qianxi chestnut agroforestry system of Hebei. We found that many factors influence farmer willingness to accept, including education level, household income, environmental awareness, environmental protection practices and knowledge of ecological compensation. This research provides helps clarify the mechanism of farmer participation in eco-compensation and provides a basis for further development of compensation standards that benefit the local environment.     

生态补偿研究进展

在中国经济迅速发展的同时,资源环境消耗不断加剧,生态环境问题日益突出,生态补偿成为改善环境的重要途径。采用文献回顾法、归纳法对国内外生态补偿的定义和理论依据、补偿原则、补偿主体客体、补偿途径、补偿标准等方面进行了总结分析,得出生态补偿的理论研究重心由宏观讨论转向微观研究,生态补偿标准测算侧重外部效益的定量核算,生态补偿途径由政府主导向市场化转变。并提出中国可借鉴的方面,即对生态补偿的概念进行科学界定,加强对征收标准的研究,建立多种资金收集渠道并有效配置资金,建立完善的生态补偿相关法律制度。同时从生态补偿标准、资金配置、补偿项目等方面做出展望。     

基于产权经济学“交易费用”理论的生态补偿机制建设

生态补偿是调整损害与保护生态环境主体间利益关系的一种制度安排,也是保护生态环境的有效激励机制。基于对生态补偿等资源环境领域公共品和外部性的传统认识,相比国外,国内目前相关实践和研究尚处于政府主导的公共性转移支付阶段。随着交通通讯的发展、生态消费理念的兴起和社会支付意愿的增强,生态旅游等市场化消费方式日趋增多,生态产权交易制度日趋成熟和完善,生态服务市场价值实现的交易成本也逐渐降低。因此,生态补偿应针对不同生态系统和生态服务类型属性,以产权经济学交易费用理论为依据,逐步推进市场化制度体系建设。对案例的搜集分析、土地管理等相关制度的深入及社区参与的跟踪,有助于该领域机制研究的深化。     

对生态补偿概念及两个研究层面的反思

对生态补偿的基本语义进行解析,提出了一种以损失性境遇与补偿关系域为基本元素的分析模式。强调生态补偿的研究与实践必须物质与价值层面并举,且以前者为指归。生态补偿在自然科学方面的深层机理与准则还有待深入研究,才能指导生态补偿在经济、法律等其他层面的正确认识与实践。指出生态效益价值计量与生态补偿没有实质性的联系;“生态效益补偿”是一个容易引起误解的观念或概念。补偿标准基本的考量在成本、包括机会成本一面,不在效益一面;既实现生产者剩余又实现消费者剩余,是合珲补偿的基本前撂。     

生态补偿：概念框架与应用研究

通过对生态补偿内涵的深入分析,首先把生态补偿的概念区分为人际补偿和人地补偿2个相互联系的方面,并指出其研究意义;其次,利用1986-2005年福建经济与环境统计数据,通过EKC曲线模型分析福建省环境质量的变化趋势,得出现阶段福建省总体环境状况仍处在污染继续加重的结论,并对其原因做了简要分析;最后,基于实证研究所得结论,运用人际补偿和人地补偿的概念框架,参照国际上发达国家的经验,对福建省环保投入的合理数额、生态补偿机制的规范和创新等问题进行了探讨。提出人地补偿必须注重时空合理配置和其效率有赖于入际补偿机制创新等观点。     

内蒙古农牧交错带生态补偿效应分析

中国的生态补偿实施主要通过制度安排进行。在内蒙古农牧交错带,生态补偿主要通过两种模式进行,即对农牧户放弃土地使用和生产结构调整给予补偿。基于详尽的野外调查,本研究对农牧户经济受偿意愿进行了对比分析,并对两种生态补偿模式的效应进行了详细评价。结果表明,放弃土地使用的生态补偿模式缺乏创造就业机会的机制,因此不具有可持续性。与此相反,调整生产结构的补偿方式不但使农户从事农牧业的规模有了明显下降,而且有助于创造更多的就业机会。虽然这种模式会使农户面临很大的市场风险,但是它为解决区域生态系统恢复和社会经济发展之间的矛盾提供了一种有效方法。     

国外生态补偿的实践及对我国的借鉴与启示

近年来,作为解决生态与环境问题的经济手段之一,生态补偿日益受到社会各界的重视和认可。国外关于生态补偿理论和实践的研究,大约已有半个多世纪的历史,有许多成功的范例。本文在探讨生态补偿的概念和基本理论的基础上,分析国外不同领域生态补偿的发展特点,总结不同国家生态补偿的实践、经验与不足,从而为构建我国生态补偿机制提供借鉴与参考。     

Major Problems and Countermeasures for the Establishment of Ecological Compensation Systems for National Key Ecological Function Areas

At the end of the 1990s China started to construct an ecological compensation system for national key ecological function areas. An eco-compensation system focusing on the “Transfer Payment of National Key Ecological Function Areas” has been established. The current eco-compensation system has played a positive role in improving the ecological environment of national key ecological function areas; but the ecological effect is weakening due to existing problems in the eco-compensation system such as unreasonable calculation of compensation standards, poor expression of rights and interests of stakeholders, simple sources of capital and modes of compensation. For better development, the eco-compensation system should be improved by (i) adhering to the combination of vertical compensation (oriented) and horizontal compensation (auxiliary) on the whole and establishing a transfer payment system of eco-compensation at national scale; (ii) defining the compensation standard according to ecological protection costs, development opportunity costs and ecological service values and adding indicators that reflect economic green transformation to evaluate compensation effects; (iii) gradually building a utilization system of eco-compensation funds in which multi-stakeholders participate and establishing a green development-oriented system to evaluate the performance of local governments; and (iv) cultivating a new business pattern where ecological services are the product, to grow the ecological service industry.     

1987-2012 年中国生态补偿研究进展及趋势

选取《中国学术文献网络出版总库》文献,从文献作者、研究领域、支撑平台、研究方法、研究区域、研究层次6 个方面,对1987-2012 年国内生态补偿研究进行评析。在文献作者方面,国内生态补偿研究尚未形成强大的核心作者群;从年度文献数量看,可将研究领域划分为4 种类型,即急剧上升型、平缓上升型、平缓稳定型和下降型;从研究区域看,国内生态补偿研究以省域层面的研究成果较多,涉及到30 多个地域类型区;在研究方法上,早期研究生态补偿大多为定性描述,目前过渡到定性与定量研究相结合;在研究层次方面,最初生态补偿研究大多为自然科学类基础与应用基础研究,后转向技术指导与政策决策支撑方面的社会科学应用研究。最后,从研究领域、研究区域、研究方法、项目支撑以及研究挑战5个方面讨论了国内生态补偿研究的未来发展趋势。     

区际农业生态补偿:区域划分与补偿标准核算——基于虚拟耕地流动视角的考察

从虚拟耕地流动的视角构建区际农业生态补偿框架,并在此框架下开展区际农业生态补偿支付/受偿区域划分和补偿标准测算的研究。结果表明：① 区际农业生态补偿的基本原理是：利用虚拟耕地净流量（输入量与输出量的差额）指标划分区际农业生态补偿的支付/受偿区域。对于净流量为负的分室,通过虚拟耕地流动占用了其他区域的耕地资源,应该支付相应的生态补偿。对于净流量为正的分室,通过虚拟耕地流动被其他区域占用了耕地资源,应得到生态补偿。区际农业生态补偿额度应包含对农业生态环境保护和改善的投资成本以及占用农业资源使其牺牲的发展机会成本等方面,并由管理平台统一收缴和分发。② 2004年以后虚拟耕地流动格局基本上保持稳定,只有个别省市（甘肃和云南）由净流入转变为净流出,在空间上表现为“北耕南流”的格局。③ 受偿区域（15个省市）主要分布在东北地区、华北地区和西北地区;支付区域（16个省市）主要分布在东部沿海地区和西南地区。④ 研究期内年均总受偿额度为1472.58亿元,处于高受偿省份（黑龙江、吉林、内蒙古、河南）年均受偿额度都在150亿元以上。研究期内年均总支付额度为543.10亿元,其中,处于高支付区域的省份（浙江、广东、北京、福建）年均支付额度都在40亿元以上。     

Current Status and Future Trends for Eco-compensation in China

Eco-compensation, known as payment for ecosystem services, is defined in China as an institutional arrangement for regulating the relationship of economic interests among ecological protectors, beneficiaries and destructors in order to protect ecological service function and foster harmony between people and nature with non-market and market tools including transfer payment, taxes and fees. Reasonable compensation to ecological service providers significantly contributes to the protection of ecological assets and effective supply of ecological services by adopting transfer payments or market transactions on the basis of comprehensively considering the costs of ecological protection, costs of development opportunity and ecological service values. It is helpful for implementing a strategy for main functional areas. The building of eco-compensation mechanisms is therefore highly valued as the most important institutional guarantee for promoting the ecological civilization. Existing eco-compensation mechanisms mainly fall into three categories: exchequer based transfer payment, vertical and horizontal, and market based compensation in China. The institutional framework has been primarily established, inclusive of a forest ecological benefit compensation fund system, grassland eco-compensation system and transfer payment system of national key ecological function areas. Under the framework, various areas and departments have actively explored the building of an eco-compensation system and achieved important progress for forests, grassland, wetlands, river basins and water resources, exploitation of mineral resources, oceans and national key ecological functions areas. However, the eco-compensation system dominated by vertical transfer payments is still far from perfect in China. The interest regulation pattern of “developer to protect and beneficiary to compensate” has not been formed. Its role in the protection of the ecological environment has not been brought into full play. China should improve eco-compensation systems by intensifying eco-compensation inputs, strengthening government responsibility, diversifying eco-compensation tools, and establishing institutional systems.     

Transverse Eco-compensation Standards for Water Conservation: A Case Study of the Middle Route Project of South-to-North Water Diversion in China

In China, the distribution of water resources is incompatible with the development of productivity. The construction of South-to-North Water Diversion Project has achieved inter-basin water diversion, and the project can alleviate the uneven distribution of water resources phenomenon effectively. However, in recent years, the aggregate effects of water pollution and water resource shortages have been serious. Establishing transverse eco-compensation mechanisms becomes the key method to achieve sustainable use of water resources. Based on statistical and questionnaire data, this paper uses the Opportunity Costs Method and Willingness to Pay approach to establish a transverse eco-compensation standard calculation model for the Middle Route Project of the South- to-North Water Diversion. The results show that the upper and lower limits of the transverse eco-compensation standard for the Middle Route Project is $2.52 billion and $2.20 billion every year, respectively. However, the paying and receiving standards varied widely among different compensation payers and compensation receivers. Meanwhile, the significant factors influencing the paying willingness of the receiver area citizens were age, education level, average revenue per month, knowledge about the South-to-North Water Diversion Project and recognition of the importance of eco-environmental integrity. This study began with a theoretical analysis, then analysed related problems related to calculating transverse eco-compensation standards for the Middle Route Project of the South-to-North Water Diversion by an empirical study. This empirical study helps to establish effective transverse eco-compensation mechanisma and promotea the development of effective policies and legislation.     

Game strategies in government-led eco-compensation in the Xin’an River Basin from the perspective of the politics of scale

China's policy on ecological compensation (eco-compensation) in watershed eco-systems is of economic,social and environmental significance for China's ecological gov-ernance and protection of natural areas.It involves balancing the interests of regional stakeholders,coordinating the development of regional environments and establishing effec-tive cooperation models,making it a classic topic for geographical research.This study in-troduces the concept of institutional "stickiness" to the theory of politics of scale to analyze the features and mechanisms of the game behavior of government entities in the process of im-plementing watershed eco-compensation in the Xin'an River Basin.Our results show the following:government entities at various levels,including the central,provincial and municipal governments,experienced the three stages of game strategy of competition,cooperation and"coopetition";building a government community of shared interests can promote watershed eco-compensation,and "appropriate intervention" by the central govemment is key to achieving inter-provincial watershed eco-compensation;there was clear institutional stickiness during the transition from a "vertical" model of watershed eco-compensation to a "vertical-horizontal"model,with government entities using policy innovations and social participation to limit and reduce stickiness so as to reshape the watershed eco-compensation system;scalar jumping is the core mechanism that promoted eco-compensation in the study basin,and government entities shaped the discourse on watershed eco-compensation by redistributing powers and capital and creating informal constraints,which promoted the transformation of eco-compensation from a "strong state-weak society" structural model,to a "strong state-strong society" model in the Xin'an River Basin.These results can provide theoretical support for the construction of inter-regional watershed eco-compensation mechanisms,pro-vide a scientific basis for the rational evaluation and guidance of watershed eco-compensation practices,and promote the coordinated and sustainable socioeconomic development of watersheds.     

生态补偿效益、标准——国际经验及对我国的启示

随着环境压力的不断增大,生态补偿作为解决环境问题的创新手段日益受到重视,补偿效益是生态补偿的核心。通过综合分析近年来国内外生态补偿研究的相关文献,发现优化选择补偿区域和合理的补偿标准是提高补偿效益的关键,机会成本是应用较广的确定生态补偿标准的方法,不同区域提供的生态服务以及损失的机会成本有差异。我国对区域差异关注较少,补偿标准未能反映农户的真实成本,存在补偿不足或对不需补偿就能提供生态服务的区域实施补偿等问题,补偿资金利用效益较低。国际上比较注重生态补偿的区域差异,在生态补偿效益、促进环境保护积极性等方面效果较好。针对我国目前生态补偿中存在的问题,借鉴国际经验,提出了确定生态补偿标准的理论框架。     

Progress in the Research on Benefit-sharing and Ecological Compensation Mechanisms for Transboundary Rivers

Transboundary rivers have important geopolitical and geo-economic connotations, but riparian states of transboundary rivers are often driven by their own rapid population growth and economic development to be-come involved in regional conflicts about the development and use of water resources. Therefore, finding a balance between the need for fair and reasonable development of water resources and the effective protection of environment from an ecological perspective has become a major problem faced by the international community. This paper begins with consideration of international water laws related to transboundary rivers and then reviews advances in the research on benefit-sharing, ecological compensation mechanisms, and adaptive management systems. We believe that existing international water laws form a complete legal system and that more attention needs to be paid to transboundary cooperation and sustainable water resource use. With respect to how transboundary water conflicts are resolved, there is a trend to move away from single water resource allocation (a zero-sum game) to benefit-sharing in order to achieve a win-win situation for riparian states, but there are still some difficulties in transboundary ecological compensation. In China, the central government has paid attention to horizontal ecological compensation between upstream and downstream, offering guidance to promote establishment of inter-province ecological compensation. Based on existing practice, horizontal ecological compensations are still in their infancy, small in scale, supported by a weak legal system, lacking market mechanisms to encourage their use and relying on fiscal transfers as the method of payment. In the future, China will need to intensify its research on legal system development, international cooperation, and benefit-sharing as these impact transboundary water resources. Because government can be seen as a management department with multiple identities (enabler, regulator and buyer), to improve adaptive transboundary ecological compensation mechanisms, government must develop as soon as possible data sharing platforms, standards of water consumption behaviors and intergovernmental policies (or ordinances).     

中国矿产资源生态补偿研究

中国是一个人口众多、社会经济快速发展的国家,如何实现矿产资源开发与生态环境保护的协调发展直接关系到整个国家社会经济的又好又快发展,而对矿产资源实施生态补偿是能有效协调资源开发和环境保护的重要途径。因此,矿产资源的生态补偿问题研究逐渐成为人们日益关心的热点和许多学者研究的焦点。采用文献资料法、综合分析归纳法,分析国内外矿产资源生态补偿的研究状况,从资源开采、生态环境保护和矿区周围农户生计三者协调发展的角度,对中国矿产资源生态补偿中存在问题及原因进行分析,并提出一些改进建议与对策。     

我国土地征收补偿制度的演变及其改革研究

通过文献资料法和对比分析法,对各个阶段我国的土地征收补偿制度进行了研究,提出完善我国土地征收补偿制度的改革建议.研究发现,在不同的时期,我国土地征收补偿制度由于所处的背景不同,征收补偿对象、测算方法和补偿标准等都发生了很大变化.由于补偿制度的演变存在路径依赖问题,使得我国土地征收补偿制度虽然经过多次有益的改革,但许多问题仍没有得到改善.     

基于投入产出方法的中国省域产业生态补偿研究

基于区域关联的视角,构建了省域生态补偿框架。运用投入产出方法,在2010年中国区域间投入产出表的基础上,以2010年统计数据为例,对中国省域间产业的土地资源占用量进行了测算。研究结果表明：①农林牧渔业大多属于被占用型产业,农业的发展应得到补偿;②工业属于占用型产业,应付出一定的生态资源补偿费;③建筑业在消费、投资情境下,属于占用型产业;在出口情境下,省域差异较大;④交通运输及仓储业,在消费和投资情境下,大多为占用型产业;而在出口情境下,省域差异较大;⑤批发零售业大多为占用型产业,应该承担生态补偿的责任;⑥其他服务业在消费情景下,大多为占用型产业;而出口和投资情景下,则大多为被占用型产业。最后,从加强产业生态补偿的立法、完善产业生态补偿的税收手段等方面,提出了相关政策建议。