柴达木盆地北缘大柴旦地区古生代花岗岩锆石SHRIMP定年

大柴旦地区是柴北缘古生代超高压带的重要组成部分,与超高压岩石相伴的花岗岩十分发育。这些花岗岩具有两类不同的岩石地球化学特征,Ⅰ类以 Na_2O/K_2O 比值小于1、明显的负 Eu 异常和低 Sr、高 Y 为特征,具有 S-型花岗岩的属性,Ⅱ类以 Na_2O/K_2O 比值大于1、弱负 Eu 异常到正 Eu 异常和高 Sr、低 Y 为特征,具有Ⅰ-型花岗岩的属性,反映了它们的源岩及成因上的差异。锆石 SHRIMP U—Ph 定年结果表明,大柴旦地区花岗岩的年龄可分为三组,第一组年龄为446.3±3.9Ma,第二组年龄分别为408.6±4.4Ma、403.3±3.8Ma、401.8±3Ma,第三组年龄分别为374.5±1.6Ma、372±2.1Ma。结合区域地质特征,我们认为,第一组年龄可能反映了柴达木陆块与中南祁连板块碰撞的时代,第二组年龄可能反映了深俯冲地下的板块由于拆沉而折返的时代,第三组年龄可能反映了碰撞隆起后造山带上不同块体之间的伸展、滑塌的时代。     

辽宁营口虎皮峪地区古元古代岩浆事件及地质意义

辽宁营口虎皮峪地区存在3期古元古代侵入岩浆活动:早期虎皮峪辽吉花岗岩成岩时代为2119±16Ma,富硅、富碱、低铝、低钙及负Eu异常显示其具有类似A型花岗岩的地球化学特征,非常低Sr高Yb的特点指示其形成压力很低,与减薄的地壳有关;第二期后松树沟奥长花岗岩成岩时代为1892±16Ma,富硅、富钠、高铝,Na2O/K2O1.35及无Eu异常或正Eu异常显示其具有埃达克质岩石的特征,中—高Sr低Yb的特点指示其形成压力较高、深度较大,与碰撞后加厚地壳底侵玄武岩的部分熔融有关;晚期南台子石英二长岩成岩时代为1850±11Ma,富碱(Na2O+K2O=11.32%~11.93%),里特曼指数δ=4.78~7.20,属碱性岩,低Sr低Yb的特点指示其形成压力中等,深度大概40~50km,是造山作用完成后板内伸展背景下的产物。上述3期岩浆事件对整个辽吉古元古代活动带的构造演化具有重要指示意义:早期辽吉花岗岩可能形成于辽吉古元古代活动带早期弧后伸展阶段;后松树沟奥长花岗岩则代表古元古代晚期碰撞后地壳加厚阶段的产物;南台子石英二长岩属后造山花岗岩,标志着辽东地区克拉通化的完成,开始进入后造山伸展演化阶段。     

西南天山晚古生代后碰撞岩浆作用：以阔克萨彦岭地区巴雷公花岗岩为例

西南天山阔克萨彦岭地区巴雷公钾长花岗岩出露于蛇绿混杂岩南侧。地球化学特征显示,该岩石富碱(K_2O Na_2O 为8.25～8.72%>8%),富钾(K_2O/Na_2O 为1.34～1.56),准铝质(A/CNK 为0.94～1.05),为高钾钙碱性-钾玄岩系列;岩石富集大离子亲石元素和轻稀土,亏损 Sr、P 等大离子亲石元素及 Nb、Ti 等高场强元素,具有中等的负铕异常(δEu=0.49～0.59),为向 A 型花岗岩过渡的后碰撞高钾花岗岩特征;岩石的 Nd/Th(1.64～3.19)、Th/U(5.95～7.11)、Nb/Ta(7.26～9.17)和高 K_2O/Na_2O 比值、低 Sr/Ba 比值特征表明,巴雷公花岗岩来源于中下地壳物质的部分熔融,残留相为斜长角闪岩。阴极发光图像显示,该岩石中锆石多呈完好的自形晶,具有岩浆锆石特有的韵律环带结构,LA-ICP-MS 微区原位 U-Ph 定年结果表明该花岗岩的结晶侵位年龄为273±2Ma。综合南天山已有研究成果,推测南天山造山带后碰撞花岗质岩浆活动主要发生在282～259Ma 之间,具有从高钾钙碱系列(282～266Ma)向碱性系列(266～259Ma)演化的特征,暗示了一个后碰撞阶段的造山带垮塌、陆壳连续伸展减薄的过程。巴雷公高钾花岗岩应为南天山造山带碰撞造山峰期变质后垮塌过程中的第一个阶段或碰撞造山到后造山的一个转折阶段的中下地壳熔融的产物,指示南天山西段古洋盆在中二叠世以前已经闭合,西南天山已进入后碰撞演化阶段,代表了古亚洲洋南部的闭合和中亚南部增生造山作用的结束。这一认识为深入探讨中亚后碰撞岩浆作用的时限和机制提供了新的约束资料。     

扬子地块西缘新元古代泸沽A型花岗岩成因与变泥质岩熔融

前人对扬子地块西缘新元古代I型和S型花岗岩开展了深入的研究工作,但有关A型花岗岩的研究则鲜有报道,其岩石成因及大地构造意义仍存较大争议。文章选择最新发现的泸沽A型花岗岩体为研究对象,开展系统的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年代学、岩石学和地球化学研究,探讨其成因机制和地质意义。泸沽花岗岩由钾长花岗岩和二长花岗岩组成,LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年代学分析显示其结晶年龄分别为(806±5)Ma和(815±5)Ma,属新元古代岩浆活动产物。岩石具有高硅(SiO_2=71.2%~76.1%)、高碱(K_2O+Na_2O=6.73%~8.95%)、高K_2O/Na_2O比值(1.89~3.60)和强过铝质(A/CNK=1.07~1.49)的特征。[FeO~T/(FeO~T+Mg O)]-SiO_2和[(Na_2O+K_2O)-CaO]-SiO_2图解均指示泸沽花岗岩为铁质碱钙性A型花岗岩。泸沽花岗岩具有较高的稀土元素含量(∑REE=221×10~(-6)~387×10~(-6)),具有轻稀土富集而重稀土亏损的特征((La/Yb)N=3.42~9.69),具有明显Eu的负异常(δEu=0.10~0.34)。泸沽花岗岩具有较高的Zr、Nb、Ce和Y含量,具有较高的Ga/Al、Y/Nb、Yb/Ta和Ce/Nb比值,显示出典型的A2型花岗岩特征。综合元素地球化学及区域地质资料,文章提出泸沽新元古代铝质A2型花岗岩起源于新元古代早期俯冲造山过程中的变泥质岩熔融。     

豫西南地区北秦岭地体新元古代花岗岩类岩石成因及其地质意义

北秦岭地体中新元古代花岗岩类岩石是秦岭造山带的重要组成部分,记录了造山带基底前寒武纪地壳形成和演化历史。本文报道方庄和德河花岗岩岩体的锆石U-Pb年龄和O同位素组成、全岩元素和Sr-Nd同位素地球化学组成,探讨其岩石成因和地壳演化意义。结果表明,方庄花岗质糜棱岩的锆石结晶年龄为933.4±9.2Ma,δ18O值8.3‰～11.9‰,初始87Sr/86Sr比值0.72455,初始εNd值-6.0,Nd模式年龄2.09Ga(tDM2);德河黑云斜长片麻岩的锆石结晶年龄为948.1±8.9Ma,初始87Sr/86Sr比值变化较大,初始εNd值-5.0,Nd模式年龄2.02Ga。结合已报道的新元古代花岗岩类岩体的年龄和地球化学数据,北秦岭地体新元古代岩浆作用可以划分为980～870Ma挤压碰撞作用和～844Ma伸展裂解作用两大阶段,包括～940Ma强烈变形S型同碰撞花岗岩、～880Ma弱-无变形后碰撞I型花岗岩和～844Ma板内A型碱性岩三类花岗岩体。地球化学组成显示,这些花岗岩类岩石可能源自不同时期形成的秦岭群基底杂岩的部分熔融,但在后碰撞阶段幔源物质或年轻地壳物质的加入明显增加。北秦岭地体中新元古代岩浆活动与Rodinia超大陆演化基本同时代,可能记录超大陆形成过程中的地壳响应。在新元古代之前,北秦岭地体或许具有不同于华北陆块和华南陆块的演化历史。     

内蒙古西乌旗石匠山晚侏罗世——早白垩世A型花岗岩锆石U-Pb年龄及构造环境

内蒙古西乌旗石匠山A型花岗岩位于贺根山缝合带内,侵位于早石炭世迪彦庙-白音布拉格蛇绿岩带和下二叠统寿山沟组与大石寨组中,岩性为二长花岗岩。石匠山A型花岗岩富硅(SiO_2=74.18%~77.16%)、富钾(K_2O=4.31%~5.07%)、富碱(Na_2O+K_2O=8.44%~9.16%),贫Al_2O_3、CaO、MgO、TiO_2、P_2O_5、Sr、Ba、Eu、Ti和P,具有较高的Ga/Al(3.98~6.09)、(Na_2O+K2O)/CaO、K_2O/MgO、TFeO/MgO、Rb/Nb、Y/Nb、Sc/Nb值,稀土元素配分曲线为典型的海鸥式分布,δEu为0.01~0.19,负Eu异常显著,明显不同于I、S和M型花岗岩,为典型的铝质A型花岗岩。在地球化学分类判别图解上,石匠山A型花岗岩显示A_2型后造山铝质花岗岩特征,反映其形成于后造山伸展环境。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年结果表明,该花岗岩的侵位年龄为159.8±1.3Ma、143.1±1.3Ma、136.20±0.69Ma,即形成时代为晚侏罗世-早白垩世,揭示贺根山缝合带在晚侏罗世-早白垩世为后造山伸展阶段。     

内蒙古西乌旗努和特早白垩世A型花岗岩LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄及其地质意义

内蒙古西乌旗努和特A型花岗岩位于贺根山缝合带内,侵位于晚石炭世梅劳特乌拉蛇绿岩带、中二叠统哲斯组和晚石炭世英云闪长岩中,岩性为正长花岗岩。努和特A型花岗岩富硅、富钾、富碱、贫Al_2O_3、CaO、MgO、TiO_2、P_2O、Sr、Ba、Eu、Ti和P,具有较高的Ga/Al、(Na_2O+K_2O)/CaO、K_2O/MgO、TFeO/MgO、Rb/Nb、Y/Nb、Sc/Nb值,稀土元素配分曲线为海鸥式分布,δEu值为0.25~0.54,负Eu异常明显,地球化学特征明显不同于I、S和M型花岗岩,为铝质A型花岗岩。在地球化学分类判别图解上,努和特A型花岗岩显示后造山A_2型花岗岩特征,反映其形成于后造山伸展环境。LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb测年表明,该花岗岩的侵位年龄为130.4±1.2Ma和130.4±1.4Ma,其形成时代为早白垩世。根据蛇绿岩、俯冲-岛弧型-碰撞型和后造山型岩浆岩的时空分布与演化特征,贺根山缝合带在早白垩世可能处于后造山伸展阶段。     

松潘造山带马尔康强过铝质花岗岩的成因及其构造意义

松潘造山带广泛出露印支期后碰撞型花岗岩类, 其中包括埃达克质花岗岩类、A型花岗岩和I型花岗岩, 但目前人们对该区印支期强过铝质花岗岩尚未有深入的研究.松潘造山带马尔康花岗岩属于强过铝质花岗岩(A/CNK=1.10~1.20), 其岩石类型主要为中粒二云母花岗岩和中细粒二云母花岗岩.利用LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年方法, 获得中粒二云母花岗岩的岩浆结晶年龄为208±2Ma, 中细粒二云母花岗岩的岩浆结晶年龄为200±2Ma.马尔康强过铝质花岗岩K₂O/Na₂O=1.13~1.75, 富Rb、Th和U, 贫Sr、Ba、Co和Ni等元素; 稀土元素组成上显示存在强到中等的负Eu异常(Eu/Eu*=0.15~0.65);全岩初始87Sr/86Sr比值(ISr) 为0.70712~0.71137, εNd (t) =-10.36~-8.43, 锆石εHf (t) =-11.8~-1.1.地球化学和Sr-Nd-Hf同位素组成一致表明, 它们的岩浆来自于地壳物质的部分熔融, 其中中粒二云母花岗岩的源岩类型主要为地壳中的泥质岩类, 而中细粒二云母花岗岩的源岩主要为地壳中的杂砂岩类.结合松潘带的地质背景、区域构造-岩浆事件及其岩浆岩的组合分析, 印支期岩石圈拆沉作用可以用来解释马尔康强过铝质花岗岩的形成机制.在松潘带, 印支期岩石圈拆沉作用导致软流圈物质上涌, 这不仅促使了加厚下地壳物质发生部分熔融, 如松潘带印支期埃达克质和I型花岗岩浆的形成, 而且还诱发了中地壳物质的部分熔融, 如马尔康强过铝质花岗岩的形成.这表明松潘带印支期岩石圈拆沉作用已使地壳不同层次发生部分熔融作用.      

东昆仑与成矿有关的三叠纪花岗岩演化:基于莫河下拉岩体岩石学、地球化学和锆石U-Pb年代学的证据

东昆仑造山带在三叠纪不仅是一个重要的构造-岩浆带,也是一个对于国民经济非常重要的多金属成矿带.该区在三叠纪形成了大量与成矿有关的花岗岩,它们之间的联系、与区域构造运动的关系目前尚未明确.在莫河下拉银多金属矿花岗斑岩岩相学、地球化学和锆石年代学的研究基础上,总结了东昆仑地区三叠纪与成矿有关花岗岩的基本特征,并探讨了它们的演化规律.结果表明:(1) 东昆仑与成矿有关的三叠纪花岗岩年龄为250~200 Ma,具有一个由低K系列-中K钙碱性系列向高K系列-钾玄岩系列过渡的明显趋势,240~200 Ma,A/NK比值由2.00降到1.00;(2)(87Sr/86Sr)_i为0.710~0.715,ε_Nd(t)值为-0.6~0.0,ε_Hf(t)主要集中在-5~1,峰值为-2~-1,表明东昆仑与成矿有关三叠纪花岗岩物质主要来源于古老的地壳物质,同时有少量的幔源物质加入;(3) 东昆仑地区在240 Ma进入后造山阶段,出现大规模的钙碱性花岗岩,220 Ma之后花岗岩大量减少,210~204 Ma出现的花岗岩以碱性A型花岗岩为主,标志着碰撞造山结束进入到板内裂解阶段.      

华北克拉通南缘A型花岗岩的年代学和Nd-Hf同位素组成:对古元古代晚期伸展事件的制约

河南上店和登封古元古代晚期A型花岗岩的锆石LA-ICP-MS U-Pb年代学、岩石地球化学和Nd-Hf同位素研究为讨论华北克拉通南缘中部古元古代晚期构造演化提供了依据。结果表明,上店花岗斑岩和登封正长花岗岩中锆石发育振荡生长环带,结合高的Th/U比值(0.36~1.64),表明其为岩浆成因,岩浆锆石的207Pb/206Pb加权平均年龄分别为1801Ma、1801Ma和1795Ma,即它们形成于古元古代晚期;上店花岗斑岩具有高SiO_2(70.30%~71.83%)、富碱(K2O+Na2O=8.76%~11.01%)、贫Ca O(0.18%~0.36%)、P2O5(0.12%~0.15%)和MgO(0.02%~0.20%)的特征,富集LILEs(Cs、Rb、Ba和K)、贫HFSEs(Nb、Ta、Zr和Hf)和强烈亏损Sr、P、Ti元素,具有负的Eu异常(δEu=0.44~0.59),结合高的FeOT/(FeOT+MgO)比值(0.94~1.00)和10000×Ga/Al比值(2.70~3.74),暗示其为A型花岗岩,具造山后A2型花岗岩特征;上店花岗斑岩的全岩εNd(t)值变化于-8.94~-6.87之间,tDM2=3243~3049Ma,锆石εHf(t)值介于-14.1~-6.5之间,tDM2=3030~2655Ma;登封正长花岗岩的锆石εHf(t)值介于-11.3~-8.4之间,tDM2=2887~2744Ma。上述结果暗示,上店和登封A型花岗岩均来源于幔源岩浆底侵作用下的中-新太古代基底物质的部分熔融,形成于华北克拉通东部和西部陆块碰撞造山后的伸展环境。     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.