The Effect of Topography on Quasi-Geostrophic Frontogenesis

This paper improves Bannon's work on the quasi-geostrophic frontogenesis in a horizontal deformation field. By setting the lower boundary condition for the equation of potential temperature on the realistic topography instead of on z = 0, a general solution for the temperature field is derived after applying conformal mapping to the equation for the potential temperature, the vertical velocity and divergence field are also calculated. The general characteristics for the frontogenetic process still are frontolytic for warm front and frontogenetic for cold front in downstream of a mountain and the reverse is true upstream of a mountain, but more fine spatial structure of the temperature field and frontogenetic characteristics than Bannon's are obtained near surface because of the treatment of lower boundary condition. It is concluded that the frontogenetic characteristics are related to the translating speed of the deformation field with respect to the topography.     

Diagnosis of a Moist Thermodynamic Advection Parameter in Heavy-Rainfall Events

A moist thermodynamic advection parameter, defined as an absolute value of the dot product of hori- zontal gradients of three-dimensional potential temperature advection and general potential temperature, is introduced to diagnose frontal heavy rainfall events in the north of China. It is shown that the parameter is closely related to observed 6-h accumulative surface rainfall and simulated cloud hydrometeors. Since the parameter is capable of describing the typical vertical structural characteristics of dynamic, thermodynamic and water vapor fields above a strong precipitation region near the front surface, it may serve as a physical tracker to detect precipitable weather systems near to a front. A tendency equation of the parameter was derived in Cartesian coordinates and calculated with the simulation output data of a heavy rainfall event. Results revealed that the advection of the parameter by the three-dimensional velocity vector, the covariance of potential temperature advection by local change of the velocity vector and general potential temperature, and the interaction between potential temperature advection and the source or sink of general potential temperature, accounted for local change in the parameter. This indicated that the parameter was determined by a combination of dynamic processes and cloud microphysical processes.     

Total deformation and its role in heavy precipitation events associated with deformation-dominant flow patterns

In this paper, it is elucidated that the total deformation （TD）, defined as the square root of the sum of squared stretching deformation and squared shearing deformation, is an invariant independent of the coordinate system used. An idealized flow field is then constructed to demonstrate the confluence effect of a non-divergent and irrotational deformation field on moisture transport. To explore the characteristics and role of TD, one heavy rainfall case that occurred in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River （MRYR） over China, associated with a front with shear line, is analyzed using the Weather Research and Forecasting （WRF） model output data. It is found that right before the occurrence of precipitation, the effect of the confluence induced by deformation on moisture transport provides a favorable condition for precipitation. During the precipitation, both location and orientation of the zone of large TD coincide with the confluent shear line. The rainhands are nearly parallel with, and located lightly to the south of the zones of large TD and the confluent shear line. The TD in the lower troposphere increases in value as precipitation persists. When TD approaches its maximal value, the next 6-hour precipitation reaches its peak correspondingly. A tendency equation for TD is derived. The analysis of linear correlation and RMS difference between individual terms in the total deformation equation and the sum of the terms shows that the pressure gradient plays a major role in determining the local change of total deformation.     

Effect of the lower boundary position of the Fourier equation on the soil energy balance

In this study, the effect of the lower boundary position selection for the Fourier equation on heat transfer and energy balance in soil is evaluated. A detailed numerical study shows that the proper position of the lower boundary is critical when solving the Fourier equation by using zero heat flux as the lower boundary condition. Since the position defines the capacity of soil as a heat sink or source, which absorbs and stores radiation energy from the sky in summer and then releases the energy to the atmosphere in winter, and regulates the deep soil temperature distribution, the depth of the position greatly influences the heat balance within the soil as well as the interaction between the soil and the atmosphere. Based on physical reasoning and the results of numerical simulation, the proper depth of the position should be equal to approximately 3 times of the annual heat wave damping depth. For most soils, the proper lower boundary depth for the Fourier equation should be around 8 m to 15 m, depending on soil texture.     

The numerical experiments on applicating geostrophic momentum approximation to the baroclinic and non-neutral PBL

In this paper, Wu and Blumen’s boundary layer geostrophic momentum approximation model (Wu and Blumen, 1982) is applied to baroclinic and non-neutral PBL, the motion equations for the PBL under the geostrophic momentum approximation are solved, in which the eddy transfer coefficient is a function of the distributions of the wind and temperature. The results are compared with those in barotropic and neutral conditions with the geostrophic momentum approximation. It is found that in the baroclinic condition, the wind distribution has both the characteristics of a steady, homogeneous and baroclinic PBL and those caused by the geostrophic momentum approximation. Those in non-neutral conditions show that they retain the intrinsic characteristics for the wind in non-neutral PBL, at the same time, the effects of the large-scale advection and local variation are also included. We can predict the wind in the non-neutral and baroclinic PBL by use of the geostrophic mo-mentum approximation when the temporal and spatial distributions of the geostrophic wind, as well as the po-tential temperatures and their variation rates at the upper and lower boundary of the PBL are given by large-scale model. Finally, the model is extended to the case over sea surface.     

IMPROVING THE EFFECT OF GREENING ON HEAT ISLAND IN URBAN RESIDENTIAL DISTRICTS BASED ON REMOTE SENSING AND GIS ANALYSIS

Analyzing the thermal distribution on plane conditions objectively is difficult due to lack of enough meteorological observation stations within urban residential areas. In this paper satellite observations synchronous or quasi-synchronous with ground observations are adopted, and a teleconnection model is built between the satellite spectral and surface temperature for quantitative retrieval of temperature. Furthermore, by combining the satellite data with other multiple factors, a GIS comprehensive analysis model and a functional evaluation method for urban residential districts are established, which are used to study the relation between the air temperature and media characteristics on ground as well as the greening cooling effect in recent years in Shanghai. The results show that the air temperature in greened urban residential districts is generally lower than the average temperature and much less than the highest one. In general, the average air temperature in the greened area is at most 1.19℃ lower than the maximum temperature in the districts, which is 0.67℃ and 0.55℃ lower than that of the highest for buildings and roads respectively. The temperature is inversely proportional with greening fraction but is directly proportional with the ratio of roads and buildings. The higher the greening fraction in internal residential districts, the lower the temperature, and the higher the ratio of road and building is, the higher the temperature.     

A numerical world ocean general circulation model

This paper describes a numerical model of the world ocean based on the fully primitive equations. A “Standard” ocean state is introduced into the equations of the model and the perturbed thermodynamic variables are used in the modle’s calculations. Both a free upper surface and a bottom topography are included in the model and a sigma coordinate is used to normalize the model’s vertical component. The model has four unevenly-spaced layers and 4 × 5 horizontal resolution based on C-grid system. The finite-difference scheme of the model is designed to conserve the gross available energy in order to avoid fictitious energy generation or decay.The model has been tested in response to the annual mean surface wind stress, sea level air pressure and sea level air temperature as a preliminary step to its further improvement and its coupling with a global atmospheric general circulation model. Some of results, including currents, temperature and sea surface elevation simulated by the model are presented.     

DYNAMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STREAM FIELD OF COLD FRONT IN BOUNDARY LAYER

The motion equation of atmospheric boundary layer with cold front surface under geostrophicmomentum approximation is solved and some characteristics of the stream field for the cold frontsurface in the boundary layer are derived,for example,the slope of the cold front surface increaseswith the increases of geostrophic vorticity and the temporal tendency of geostrophic wind speed,and also increases with the decrease of the component of thermal wind speed along the motiondirection of the front:the stream field above and below the cold front surface in the boundary layerdepends on the slope of the front surface,geostrophic wind speed and its temporal and spatialdistributions.A common characteristic is that there exist updraft motion above the cold frontsurface and downdraft motion below it.     

NUMERICAL SIMULATION FOR THE EFFECTS OF PBL AND THE SURFACE ON POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS

On the basis of theoretical and experimental results of study of planetary boundary layer (PBL), the physical parameters describing the structure of PBL are calculated by using the data obtained from a meteorological tower and the effects of PBL and the surface on pollutant concentrations are numerically simulated with a time-dependent two-dimensional advection and diffusion equation.It is shown that the diurnal variation of PBL results in that of concentration. The height of mixing layer is an important factor to determine the ground-level concentration. As for an elevated point source, the height of mixing layer, growing from lower to higher than the releasing height is a necessary condition for the phenomenon of fumigation. It is also shown that the surface may be considered as a boundary with perfect reflection when Vd ≤0.001 m s-1, but has an important effect on concentration and must be carefully dealt with when Vd≥0.01 m s-1.     

The Adaptive Wavelet Collocation Method and Its Application in Front Simulation

The adaptive wavelet collocation method(AWCM)is a variable grid technology for solving partial differential equations(PDEs)with high singularities.Based on interpolating wavelets,the AWCM adapts the grid so that a higher resolution is automatically attributed to domain regions with high singularities. Accuracy problems with the AWCM have been reported in the literature,and in this paper problems of effciency with the AWCM are discussed in detail through a simple one-dimensional(1D)nonlinear advection equation whose analytic solution is easily obtained.A simple and effcient implementation of the AWCM is investigated.Through studying the maximum errors at the moment of frontogenesis of the 1D nonlinear advection equation with different initial values and a comparison with the finite difference method(FDM) on a uniform grid,the AWCM shows good potential for modeling the front effciently.The AWCM is also applied to a two-dimensional(2D)unbalanced frontogenesis model in its first attempt at numerical simulation of a meteorological front.Some important characteristics about the model are revealed by the new scheme.     

NONLINEAR ROSSBY WAVE INDUCED BY LARGE-SCALE TOPOGRAPHY

In this paper, a barotropic model is used to discuss the nonlinear Rossby wave induced by the large-scale topography. By using separate multi-scale perturbation method and matching boundary condition, the generalized KDV equation is obtained. Especially, in consideration of the effect of the Tibetan Plateau, the distributions of the disturbance stream function is given. It is proved that solitary wave induced by the large-scale topography exists indeed and it has direct influence on the weather of its lower reaches.     

Investigation of the mei-yu front using a new deformation frontogenesis function

A new frontogenesis function is developed and analyzed on the basis of a local change rate of the absolute horizontal gradient of the resultant deformation. Different from the traditional frontogenesis function, the newly defined deformation frontogenesis is derived from the viewpoint of dynamics rather than thermodynamics. Thus, it is more intuitive for the study of frontogenesis because the compaction of isolines of both temperature and moisture can be directly induced by the change of a flow field. This new frontogenesis function is particularly useful for studying the mei-yu front in China because mei-yu rainbands typically consist of a much stronger moisture gradient than temperature gradient, and involve large deformation flow. An analysis of real mei-yu frontal rainfall events indicates that the deformation frontogenesis function works remarkably well, producing a clearer mei-yu front than the traditional frontogenesis function based on a measure of the potential temperature gradient. More importantly, the deformation frontogenesis shows close correlation with the subsequent(6 h later) precipitation pattern and covers the rainband well, bearing significance for the prognosis or even prediction of future precipitation.     

Typical Structure, Variety, and Multi-Scale Characteristics of Meiyu Front

Meiyu front plays an important role in summer rainfall in central China. Based on the GMS-5 satellite images, NCEP reanalyses （2.5°×2.5°） and final analyses （1°×1°） data, and meteorological conventional sounding observations, the horizontal and vertical structures of the Meiyu front were summarized using multiple diagnostic variables, including winds, temperature, jet stream, front, pseduo-equivalent potential temperature, divergence, vertical motion, static instability, etc. In this paper, four cases were selected and analyzed, two of which are in 26-28 June and 23 July 2002 during the Experiment on Heavy Rain in the Meiyu period in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and the others are in May and July 1998. The two cases in July 1998 and July 2002 are the secondary Meiyu front cases. The results show that the structures and characteristics of the Meiyu front are different for various cases, or at various places and time, or at various stages of one case, and the frontal characteristics can be converted from the polar front to the equatorial front. Because of the interaction of the different scale circulations in the high and low latitudes, the horizontal structure of the Meiyu front has various forms.
The results in this paper also show that the typical Meiyu front consists of a narrow band with a high gradient of potential equivalent temperature below 500 hPa, south of which is warm and moist air mass, and north of which is the transformed air mass from the midlatitude ocean or polar continent. Below the mid troposphere, south of the front blows southwesterlies, while north blows easterlies. The ascending motion and precipitation usually occur ahead of the Meiyu front. In the upper troposphere, the subtropical front is above the Meiyu front, but two fronts are separated. In addition, the upper westerly jet stream and the easterlies to the south of the Meiyu front result in the upper divergent flow field.
The multi-scale characteristics of the horizontal structure of the Meiyu front can     

A Diagnostic Analysis of the Simulated Structure of a Meiyu Front System in 1999

A numerical simulation of a torrential rain event occurring in the Jiang-Huai Valley of China from 22-24 June 1999 is performed and analyzed by using the PSU/NCAR MM5 mesoscale non-hydrostatic model. The high-resolution model output data are utilized to diagnose the double front structure, and the distributions of potential temperature, equivalent potential temperature, and specific humidity in the vicinity of the Meiyu Front System （MYFS） in the Jiang-Huai Valley. The results show that both the potential temperature gradient and the specific humidity gradient have important impacts on the two strong equivalent potential temperature gradient zones associated with the double front structure of the MYFS, but the latter （moisture gradient） is more important. In addition, the tendency equation of specific humidity gradient is theoretically derived. It shows that variations of the specific humidity gradient are related to the advection, convergence/divergence, horizontal and vertical vorticities （secondary circulation） effects and the gradient of water vapor source/sink. As an example, the budget of the meridional component of the tendency equation is selected and diagnosed by using the above model simulation data of the torrential rain event. It is shown that the variation of the specific humidity gradient averaged throughout the simulation is mainly controlled by the convergence/divergence effect, the secondary circulation effect associated with the horizontal vorticities, and the water vapor source/sink effect. Since the water vapor source/sink is often formed from the phase change processes of water vapor in the air and thus directly associated with cloud and precipitation microphysics processes, the variation of the specific humidity gradient is closely related with cloud and precipitation microphysics and the distribution, development and evolution of cloud and rainfall systems. The double front structure of the MYFS provides an advantageous environmental condition for the development and movement of the mesoscale torrential rain system nearby. In turn, the development of the torrential rain exerts a signifiant impact on the MYFS through changing the thermal and moisture distributions.     

Centennial oscillations in an ocean-ice coupled model

Irregular centennial oscillations, with a spectral peak at 106 years, were obtained from an ocean-ice coupled model for the North Atlantic with realistic coastline and bottom topography. The model’s thermohaline circulation is forced by mixed boundary conditions, i.e., a Haney-type relaxation condition for temperature, but an equivalent virtual salt flux condition for salinity. All forcing fields are taken from the observed monthly mean climatological wind stress and buoyancy fluxes. The oscillations appeared in the form of a surface-intensified tripole in both the sea surface temperature and salinity fields located in the vicinity of the Labrador Sea. The oscillations involve a delicate interplay between heat and fresh water advection by meridional overturning circulation, horizontal gyres, vertical convection, and the seasonal cycle. The oscillations are primarily control?led by the salinity component of the circulation; however, sea ice plays a minor role in driving the oscillations observed in the model. On the other hand, a regular seasonal cycle in the forcing fields is an important ingredient for the centennial oscillations.     

Numerical simulation for the effects of PBL and the surface on pollutant concentrations

On the basis of theoretical and experimental results of study of planetary boundary layer (PBL), the physical parameters describing the structure of PBL are calculated by using the data obtained from a meteor-ological tower and the effects of PBL and the surface on pollutant concentrations are numerically simulated with a time-dependent two-dimensional advection and diffusion equation.It is shown that the diurnal variation of PBL results in that of concentration. The height of mixing layer is an important factor to determine the ground-level concentration. As for an elevated point source, the height of mixing layer, growing from lower to higher than the releasing height is a necessary condition for the phenomenon of fumigation. It is also shown that the surface may be considered as a boundary with perfect reflection when Vd ≤ 0.001 m s-1, but has an important effect on concentration and must be carefully dealt with when Vd ≤ 0.01 m s-1.     

A study of the effect of topography on the merging of vortices

Eight sets of numerical experiments are performed in 48 hours of integtation by using a barotropic primitive equation model with a topographic term so as to investigate the effect of topography on the merging of vortices. It is pointed out that the introduction of topography may change the track of vortices,and it causes the low vortices and vorticity lumps to be detained on the southeast side of the topography,thus creating a favorable condition for the merging of the low vortex and vorticity lumps. It is also shown that the effect of topography may cause double mergers of vortices in a horizontally shearing basic flow,and it can strengthen the low vortex remarkably.     

The transfer of physical quantities in QDPO and its relation to the interaction between the NH and SH Circulations

Based on the 1979 FGGE Level III b data, calculation is made of the transfer of sensible and latent heat and momentum due to a quasi-40-day periodic oscillation (QDPO) on a cross-equatorial meridional ver-tical cross-section, and analysis is done of the characteristics of the transfer at all phases of QDPO, with the following results obtained:1) During the monsoon’s QDPO activation and break phases, a strong transfer of sensible heat to the SH is felt in the upper troposphere over the Asian monsoon region; the conversion of perturbation effective potential into its kinetic energy attains its maximum at 500-300 hPa (15oN), serving as the source of kinetic energy for the quasi-40-day periodic perturbation; an intense transfer of potential energy is found above 200 hPa from the monsoon area to the SH to maintain the QDPO at the tropical latitudes;2) During the QDPO activation-break (and reverse) transitional phase the conversion of perturbation effective potential into kinetic energy reaches its maximum in the middle and lower troposphere over the SH middle latitudes and an appreciable lower transfer of potential energy occurs towards the SH tropical latitudes and the NH.3) The upper-tropospheric powerful transfer of westerly momentum caused by QDPO is discovered from the SH tropical latitudes to the NH, and the resulting momentum divergence and convergence are unfavorable for the maintenance of the seasonal mean fields of the NH tropical easterly and SH subtropical westerly winds.Finally possible synoptical processes responsible for QDPO are discussed together with its relation to the interaction between the circulations of both the hemispheres. It is found that QDPO is both the result of and medium for the interaction.     

THE EFFECTS OF TOPOGRAPHY ON THE SUMMER ATMOS-PHERIC ENERGETICS OF THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE IN A LOW-RESOLUTION GLOBAL SPECTRAL MODEL

An analysis is made of the effects of topography on the summer atmospheric energetics of the Northern Hemisphere in a low-resolution global spectral model. The numerical model is a global, spectral, primitive equation model with five equally spaced sigma levels in the vertical and triangular truncation at wavenumber 10 in the horizontal. The model includes comparatively full physical processes.Each term of the energy budget equations is calculated in four specific latitudinal belts (81.11°S-11.53°S; 11.53°S-11.53°N; 11.53°N-46.24°N; 46.24°N-81.11°N) from a five-year simulation with mountains and a one-year simulation without mountains, respectively. Differences between them are compared and statistically tested. The results show that synoptical scale waves transport available potential energy and kinetic energy to long waves and increase conversion from available potential energy of the zonal flow to eddy’s and from the eddy kinetic energy to the zonal kinetic energy in region 3 (11.53°N-46.24°N) due to mountains; topography intensifies the atmospheric baroclinity in region 3, consequently the baroclinic conversion of atmosphere energy is increased. The seasonal characteristics associated with the summer atmospheric energy source in region 3 are caused by seasonal variation of the solar radiation and the land-ocean contrasts and independent of topographic effects. The mechanism of topographic effects on the increase of long wave kinetic energy is also discussed.     

Arnol’d’s Second Nonlinear Stability Theorem for General Multilayer Quasi-geostrophic Model

Arnol’d’s second nonlinear stability criterion for motions governed by a general multilayer quasi-geostiophic model is established. The model allows arbitrary density jumps and layer thickness, and at the top and the bottom of the fluid, the boundary condition is either free or rigid. The criterion is obtained by the establishment of the upper bounds of disturbance energy and potential enstrophy in terms of the initial disturbance field.