Numerical study of characteristics of underground blast induced surface ground motion and their effect on above-ground structures. Part II. Effects on structural responses

Studies of structural responses and damage to high-frequency blast motion are very limited. Current practice uses some empirical allowable ground vibration limits in assessing structural performance. These empirical limits overlook the physical parameters that govern structural response and damage, such as the ground motion characteristics and inherent structural properties. This paper studies the response of RC frame structures to numerically simulated underground blast-induced ground motions. The structural response and damage characteristics of frame structures to ground motions of different frequencies are investigated first. The effects of blast ground motion spatial variations and soil–structure interaction on structural responses are also studied. A suitable discrete model that gives accurate response prediction is determined. A damage index defined based on the accumulated plastic hinge rotation is used to predict structural damage level. Numerical results indicated that both the low structural vibration modes (global modes) and the first elemental vibration mode (local) might govern the dynamic structural responses depending on the ground motion frequency and structural response parameters under consideration. Both ground motion spatial variations and soil–structure interaction effects are prominent. Neglecting them might yield inaccurate structural response prediction. The overall structural response and damage are highly ground motion frequency dependent. Numerical results of structural damage are also compared with some test results obtained in a previous study and with code specifications. Discussions on the adequacy of the code allowable ground vibration limits on RC frame structures are also made.     

ANALYSIS OF AMPLIFICATION CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUND MOTIONS IN THE HEAVILY DAMAGED BELT ZONE DURING THE 1995 HYOGO-KEN NANBU EARTHQUAKE

To estimate the amplification characteristics of ground motions in the heavily damaged belt zone in Kobe City during the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake, 3D wave propagation analyses of a 2D deep irregular underground structure model with a vertical discontinuity were performed at an early stage as a preliminary and qualitative study. The hyperelement method was applied to the analyses for incident plane waves expected from the wavefields due to the source mechanism. The observation records at Kobe University of the rock site were used as control motions. The ground motions on the engineering bedrock (assumed to be on the free surface of the Osaka group layers having a shear velocity of 500 m/s) and at ground surface were calculated. The effects of the deep irregular underground structure and shallow surface layers on the ground motion amplification are discussed. Although there are qualifications due to the uncertain characteristics of the input rock motion and shear wave velocities of the underground structure, the analytical results show that the ground motion in the heavily damaged belt zone were amplified due to the focusing effect of the deep irregular underground structure as well as the shallow surface layers, and that the calculated peak ground acceleration (PGA) distribution coincided closely with the distributions of structural damage. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Earthquake ground motion modeling of induced seismicity in the Groningen gas field

A physics‐based numerical approach is used to characterize earthquake ground motion due to induced seismicity in the Groningen gas field and to improve empirical ground motion models for seismic hazard and risk assessment. To this end, a large‐scale (20 km × 20 km) heterogeneous 3D seismic wave propagation model for the Groningen area is constructed, based on the significant bulk of available geological, geophysical, geotechnical, and seismological data. Results of physics‐based numerical simulations are validated against the ground motion recordings of the January 8, 2018, M_L 3.4 Zeerijp earthquake. Taking advantage of suitable models of slip time functions at the seismic source and of the detailed geophysical model, the numerical simulations are found to reproduce accurately the observed features of ground motions at epicentral distances less than 10 km, in a broad frequency range, up to about 8 Hz. A sensitivity analysis is also addressed to discuss the impact of 3D underground geological features, the stochastic variability of seismic velocities and the frequency dependence of the quality factor. Amongst others, results point out some key features related to 3D seismic wave propagation, such as the magnitude and distance dependence of site amplification functions, that may be relevant to the improvement of the empirical models for earthquake ground motion prediction.     

近断层地震动的基本特征

本文对近断层地震动的基本特征作了详细分析,这些基本特征主要包括近断层强地震动的集中性、地表破裂、地面永久变形、破裂的方向性效应、近断层速度大脉冲和上盘效应。这些特征虽然在一次地震中不一定同时出现,但它们是已经被强震观测资料和数值模拟证实了的,在模拟和预测近断层地震动时,必须充分考虑这些特点,合理的近断层地震动模拟或预测模型和方法应当在结果中再现这些特点。     

Ground motion characteristics of the Chi‐Chi earthquake of 21 September 1999

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the ground motion characteristics of the Chi‐Chi earthquake (21 September 1999) as well as the interpretation of structural damage due to this earthquake. Over 300 strong motion records were collected from the strong motion network of Taiwan for this earthquake. A lot of near‐field ground motion data were collected. They provide valuable information on the study of ground motion characteristics of pulse‐like near‐field ground motions as well as fault displacement. This study includes: attenuation of ground motion both in PGA and spectral amplitude, principal direction, elastic and inelastic response analysis of a SDOF system subjected to near‐field ground motion collected from this event. The distribution of spectral acceleration and spectral velocity along the Chelungpu fault is discussed. Based on the mode decomposition method the intrinsic mode function of ground acceleration of this earthquake is examined. A long‐period wave with large amplitude was observed in most of the near‐source ground acceleration. The seismic demand from the recorded near‐field ground motion is also investigated with an evaluation of seismic design criteria of Taiwan Building Code. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of canyon topography and geological conditions on strong ground motion

The finite and infinite element coupling system is used to study the effects of canyon topography and geological conditions on strong ground motion. The system is first applied to a semi-cylindrical shaped canyon using SH wave propagation to verify its accuracy. It is concluded that different topography conditions may have important effects on the ground motions along the canyon. The geological conditions, by which we mean different softening of weathered strata of the canyon surface, will have significantly amplified effects on the free field motions. This fact suggests that a deep weathered rock excavation of arch dam abutments for stability purposes will also benefit earthquake resistance of the dam due to the reduction of ground motions of the sound rock.     

海底强震观测记录与地震动特性研究进展

随着海洋结构物的建设快速发展,为了解海底地震动相关特性,目前在建与已建成的海底强震台网逐年增加,得到的强震数据为海底地震动特性研究提供了重要资料。本文首先,统计了世界范围内现有海底强震台网的分布,并对强震台站信息及记录特点简要总结;其次,综述了基于海底强震记录以及数值计算等方法分析海底地震动特性的研究成果;并且,阐述了海底地震动在海洋工程中应用的研究现状;最后,基于现有研究成果,对海底地震动特性研究的前景进行讨论和展望。     

脉冲型地震动潜在破坏势参数的相关性分析

为了在众多参数中挑选其中最有代表性的参数,来解释和反映脉冲型地震动对结构的潜在破坏能力,以338条脉冲型地震动记录作为研究对象,分析地震动参数与中低层结构响应的相关性。选取了14个常用地震动参数,对各地震动参数之间的相关性进行分析,从中选出7个代表性地震动参数;并将脉冲型地震动输入中低层结构模型中计算结构响应,分析代表性地震动参数与结构响应的相关性,与基于非脉冲型地震动的相关性计算结果进行对比。选用了3层和7层2个RC框架结构作为中低层结构代表,其基本周期为0.62s和0.89s。结果表明:对于脉冲型地震动,对于3层结构时与结构响应相关性最好的为EPV,对于7层结构时与结构响应相关性最好的为PGV,因此可以用PGV和EPV作为表征脉冲型地震动对中低层结构潜在破坏能力的参数;而对于非脉冲型地震动,与结构响应相关性最好的参数为PGV,可以用PGV作为表征脉冲型地震动对中低层结构的潜在破坏能力的参数。因此,通过地震动参数来解释和表征脉冲型地震动对结构的破坏能力是可行的。     

Modelling damage potential of high‐frequency ground motions

Damage to building structures due to underground blast‐induced ground motions is a primary concern in the corresponding determination of the safe inhabited building distance (IBD). Because of the high‐frequency nature of this category of ground motions and especially the presence of significant vertical component, the characteristics of structural response and damage differ from those under seismic type low‐frequency ground motions. This paper presents a numerical investigation aimed at evaluating reinforced concrete (RC) structure damage generated by underground blast‐induced ground excitation. In the numerical model, two damage indices are proposed to model reinforced concrete failure. A fracture indicator is defined to track the cracking status of concrete from micro‐ to macrolevel; the development of a plastic hinge due to reinforcement yielding is monitored by a plastic indicator; while the global damage of the entire structure is correlated to structural stiffness degradation represented by its natural frequency reduction. The proposed damage indices are calibrated by a shaking table test on a 1: 5‐scale frame model. They are then applied to analyse the structural damage to typical low‐ to high‐rise RC frames under blast‐induced ground motions. Results demonstrate a distinctive pattern of structural damage and it is shown that the conventional damage assessment methods adopted in seismic analysis are not applicable here. It is also found that the existing code regulation on allowable peak particle velocity of blast‐induced ground motions concerning major structural damage is very conservative for modern RC structures. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identification of acceleration pulses in near-fault ground motion using the EMD method

In this paper, response spectral characteristics of one-, two-, and three-lobe sinusoidal acceleration pulses are investigated, and some of their basic properties are derived. Furthermore, the empirical mode decomposition （EMD） method is utilized as an adaptive filter to decompose the near-fault pulse-like ground motions, which were recorded during the September 20, 1999, Chi-Chi earthquake. These ground motions contain distinct velocity pulses, and were decomposed into high-frequency （HF） and low-frequency （LF） components, from which the corresponding HF acceleration pulse （if existing） and LF acceleration pulse could be easily identified and detected. Finally, the identified acceleration pulses are modeled by simplified sinusoidal approximations, whose dynamic behaviors are compared to those of the original acceleration pulses as well as to those of the original HF and LF acceleration components in the context of elastic response spectra. It was demonstrated that it is just the acceleration pulses contained in the near-fault pulse-like ground motion that fundamentally dominate the special impulsive dynamic behaviors of such motion in an engineering sense. The motion thus has a greater potential to cause severe damage than the far-field ground motions, i.e. they impose high base shear demands on engineering structures as well as placing very high deformation demands on long-period structures.     

Attenuation of peak ground acceleration,velocity and displacement based on multiple regression analysis of japanese strong motion records

This paper presents the result of multiple regression analysis of 197 sets of two orthogonal horizontal strong motion acceleration records. They were obtained at 67 free field sites in Japan from 90 earthquakes with focal depth less than 60 km. Because sensitivity of the Japanese SMAC accelerograph is appreciably low at the high frequency range, instrument correction was performed on the original data. Each pair of two orthogonal horizontal components was combined in the time domain to get the maximum peak ground motions in the horizontal plane. The records were classified into three groups due to subsoil condition. With the use of multiple regression analysis, empirical formulae of attenuation of the maximum peak ground acceleration, velocity and displacement were proposed for three subsoil conditions.     

软土隧道基于地震响应的输入地震动排序

为探讨“最不利地震动”概念在地下结构抗震设计中的适用性,以软土地铁区间隧道为对象建立相应的地层-结构动力分析模型。以直径变形率为分析指标,基于动力时程方法研究18条不同输入地震动作用下隧道结构动力响应的分布及差异性,得出基于隧道地震响应的输入地震动排序,并通过调幅手段对比分析了地面峰值加速度（PGA）和隧道埋深变化对隧道结构地震动响应排序的影响规律。最后,评价了不同输入地震动参数,包括峰值加速度、峰值速度、峰值位移、绝对累积速度（CAV）和阿里亚斯（Arias）强度（I_A）与隧道地震响应之间的相关性。分析结果表明:① 随着PGA从0.5 m/s2增加到2 m/s2,地震动排序发生明显变化,并且不同输入地震动引起的隧道地震响应差异显著提高,最不利地震动引起的直径变形率与平均值的比值从1.1增加到1.9;② 隧道从浅埋到深埋的过程中,地震动排序结果基本保持不变;③ PGA为2 m/s2时,隧道地震响应与基岩面峰值速度（PBV）的相关性最好,相关系数达到0.94,其次是与基岩面峰值位移（PBD）和I_A,相关系数分别为0.62和0.48,相关性最差的是基岩面峰值加速度（PBA）和CAV,相关系数仅为0.37和0.22。研究结论可为今后软土隧道的输入地震动选择提供科学依据。      

特殊长周期地震动的参数特征研究

近断层脉冲型地震动和远场软土层场地类谐和地震动是两类特殊的长周期地震动,当前的规范均很少对这两类地震作用进行具体的规定。研究了近断层脉冲型和远场类谐和地震动的幅值、幅值比（V／A,D／V）、傅里叶幅值谱和反应谱的差别,分析了相位角和作用循环周期数对简单脉冲的影响,并用于解释两类特殊地震动的工程特征。以集集地震动为数据基础,分析了两类长周期地震动的傅里叶谱和反应谱特征;将平均加速度和位移规准反应谱分别与规范设计谱进行了比较。建议设计谱在长周期段考虑近断层作用和软土场地面波效应的影响。     

翡翠河谷地震动地形效应解析分析

地表不规则地形的存在往往会引起地震波的散射,进而产生局部地震动放大或衰减的现象.虽然地形效应最早在异常地震记录中被发现,然而利用地形影响台阵记录到的地震动数据却少之又少.基于1992年在我国台湾翡翠河谷上观测到的六条地形影响台阵记录,利用线源SH波入射下非对称V形河谷地震波传播解析理论,模拟得到了河谷台阵各点的地震动,...     

Study on the severest real ground motion for seismic design and analysis

How to select the adequate real strong earthquake ground motion for seismic analysis and design of trucures is an essential problem in earthquake engineering research and practice.In the paper the concept of the severest design ground motion is proposed and a method is developed for comparing the severity of the recorded strong ground motions.By using this method the severest earthquake ground motions are selected out as seismic inputs to the structures to be designed from a database that consists of more than five thousand significant strong ground moton records collected over the world.The selected severest ground motions are very likely to be able to drive the structures to their critical response and thereby result in the highest damage potential.It is noted that for different structures with diffferent predominant natural periods and at different sites where structures are located the severest design ground motions are usually different.Finally.two examples are illustrated to demonstrate the rationality of the concept and the reliability of the selected design motion.     

Spatial ground motion effect on relative displacement of adjacent building structures

This paper analyses earthquake ground motion spatial variation effects on relative linear elastic response of adjacent building structures. It studies the relative importance of ground motion spatial variations and dynamic characteristics of adjacent structures in causing relative responses. Random vibration method is used in the study. It is found that, besides ground-acceleration-induced dynamic responses, quasi-static responses induced by spatially varying ground displacements also contribute significantly to the relative structural responses. The effects of spatial ground motions are very pronounced to the relative displacements of adjacent low-rise structures, and to those of high-rise adjacent structures with similar vibration characteristics. The effect of vibration properties of adjacent structures are, however, more significant to those of high-rise adjacent structures if they poses noticeably different vibration periods. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于实测记录分析场地因素对海底地震动特性影响

目前基于海底实测记录的分析发现海底与陆地地震动特性存在明显差异,但难以进一步确定海底地震动特性的影响因素。在以往研究的基础上对比同次地震中相邻海底台站间地震动特性的差异,并分析造成差异的原因。以日本K-NET地震台网中6个海底强震台站及其相邻不同场地条件陆地台站监测的8次强震记录为研究对象,通过分析强震记录的峰值加速度、水平放大系数谱、竖向与水平反应谱的比谱等,对比分析不同海底台站地震动的特性,以及海底台站与相邻不同场地条件陆地台站地震动特性的差别。研究发现：（1）海底与陆地竖向地震动存在明显差异;（2）不同海底台站间地震动特性亦存在较大差异和明显的规律性,海底场地条件、地形等场地因素对海底地震动特性的影响较大;（3）海底水平向地震动反应谱的特征周期较大,谱特性介于陆地中硬土与软土场地间。     

Effect of seawater on incident plane P and SV waves at ocean bottom and engineering characteristics of offshore ground motion records off the coast of southern California,USA

The effect of seawater on vertical ground motions is studied via a theoretical method and then actual offshore ground motion records are analyzed using a statistical method. A theoretical analysis of the effect of seawater on incident plane P and SV waves at ocean bottom indicate that on one hand, the affected frequency range of vertical ground motions is prominent due to P wave resonance in the water layer if the impedance ratio between the seawater and the underlying medium is large, but it is greatly suppressed if the impedance ratio is small; on the other hand, for the ocean bottom interface model selected herein, vertical ground motions consisting of mostly P waves are more easily affected by seawater than those dominated by SV waves. The statistical analysis of engineering parameters of offshore ground motion records indicate that:(1) Under the infl uence of softer surface soil at the seafl oor, both horizontal and vertical spectral accelerations of offshore motions are exaggerated at long period components, which leads to the peak spectral values moving to a longer period.(2) The spectral ratios(V/H) of offshore ground motions are much smaller than onshore ground motions near the P wave resonant frequencies in the water layer; and as the period becomes larger, the effect of seawater becomes smaller, which leads to a similar V/H at intermediate periods(near 2 s). These results are consistent with the conclusions of Boore and Smith(1999), but the V/H of offshore motion may be smaller than the onshore ground motions at longer periods(more than 5 s).     

Ultrasonic modelling research of earthquake response of underground lifeline engineering

Earthquake response of underground lifeline engineering is investigated by the method of ultrasonic model experiments in this paper. From general field conditions, two models of underground lifeline engineering, one for non-uniform field and the other for uniform field, are designed based on the similarity principle. Besides analysis of seismic phases, a series of analyses especially on particle vibration are carried out. The results show that: The shorter the epicentral distance, the greater are the intensity variation and the change rate of intensity variation of earthquake ground motion, so the more disadvantageous to underground pipelines. In soft covering layer, compressional waves mainly cause radial flexures deformation, but shear wave result in axial dilation deformation of the pipelines; when the thickness of the covering layer is smaller (less than seismic wave length), the rhythmic variation of the intensity of earthquake ground motion is controlled mainly by the wave length of seismic waves in the bedrock. The property of the covering layer has considerable effect on earthquake ground motion. For different covering layers, their effect on each component of earthquake ground motion is not the same. Owing to the effect of wave propagation, the ground is in different states of particle vibration at different times, and there is considerable difference in phase and intensity of particle vibration between two different covering layers near their junction line or surface. Because underground lifelines tend to vibrate with the particles of the earth around it, this results in different deformation of underground pipelines under different conditions. So, it is necessary to take corresponding anti-seismic countermeasures for pipelines according to their practical situations. The Chinese version of this paper appeared in the Chinese edition ofActa Seismologica Sinica,14, 104–110, 1992. This paper is part of the research supported by Funds of Doctoral Faculty of National Education Committee.