Lunar seismicity and tectonics

Seismic signals from 300–700 deep moonquakes and about four shallow moonquakes are detected by the long-period seismometers of two or more of the Apollo seismic stations annually. Deep-moonquake activity detected by the Apollo seismic network displays tidal periodicities of 0.5 and 1 month, 206 d and 6 a. Repetitive moonquakes from 60 hypocenters produce seismograms characteristic of each. At each hypocenter, moonquakes occur only within an active period of a few days during a characteristic phase of the monthly lunar tidal cycle. An episode of activity may contain up to four quakes from one hypocenter. Nearly equal numbers of hypocenters are active at opposite phases of the monthly cycle, accounting for the 0.5-month periodicity. The 0.5- and 1-month activity peaks occur near times of extreme latitudinal and longitudinal librations and earth-moon separation (EMS). The 206-d and 6-a periodicities in moonquake occurrence and energy release characteristics are associated with the phase variations between the librations and EMS. Because of the exact relationship between tidal phases and the occurrence of deep moonquakes from a particular hypocenter, it is possible to predict not only the occurrence times from month to month, often to within several hours, but also the magnitudes of the moonquakes from that hypocenter. The predicted occurrence of large A₁ moonquakes in 1975, following a 3-a hiatus, confirms the correlation between A₁-moonquake activity and the 6-a lunar tidal cycle and implies a similar resurgence for all of the deep moonquakes. Because no matching shallow moonquake signals have been identified to date, tidal periodicities cannot be identified for the individual sources. However, shallow moonquakes generally occur near the times of extreme librations and EMS and often near the same tidal phase as the closest deep moonquake epicenters. With several possible exceptations, the deep-moonquake foci located to date occur in three narrow belts on the nearside of the moon. The belts are 100–300 km wide, 1,000–2,500 km long and 800–1,000 km deep and define a global fracture system that intersects in central Oceanus Procellarum. A fourth active, although poorly defined, zone is indicated. The locations of 17 shallow-moonquake foci, although not as accurate as the deep foci, show fair agreement with the deep-moonquake belts. Focal depths calculated for the shallow moonquakes range from 0–200 km. Deep-moonquake magnitudes range from 0.5 to 1.3 on the Richter scale with a total energy release estimated to be about 10¹¹ erg annually. The largest shallow moonquakes have magnitudes of 4–5 and release about 10¹⁵–10¹⁸ erg each. Tidal deformation of a rigid lunar lithosphere overlying a reduced-rigidity asthenosphere leads to stress and strain concentrations near the base of the lithosphere at the level of the deep moonquakes. Although tidal strain energy can account for the deep moonquakes in this model, it cannot account for the shallow moonquakes. The tidal stresses within the lunar lithosphere range from about 0.1 to 1 bar and are insufficient to generate moonquakes in unfractured rock, suggesting that lunar tides act as a triggering mechanism. The largest deep moonquakes of each belt usually occur near the same characteristic tidal phases corresponding to near minimum or maximum tidal stress, increasing tidal stress, and alignments of tidal shear stresses that correspond to thrust faulting along planes parallel to the moonquake belts and dipping 30–40°. With few exceptions, the shallow moonquakes occur at times of near minimum tidal stress conditions and increasing tidal stress that also suggest thrust faulting. The secular accumulation of strain energy required for the shallow moonquakes and implied by the uniform polarities of the deep moonquake signals probably results from weak convection. A convective mechanism would explain the close association between moonquake locations and the distribution of filled mare basins and thin lunar crust, the earth-side topographic bulge, and the ancient lunar magnetic field. The low level of lunar seismic activity and the occurrence of thrust faulting both at shallow and great depths implies that the moon is presently cooling and contracting at a slow rate.     

Automatic Location of Swarm Earthquakes from Local Network Data

An advanced method of automated seismic phase picking and exact location and magnitude determination of swarm micro-earthquakes from local network data is presented. The phase picker is applied in two steps: first, S-wave groups are identified using a polarisation detector, and then corresponding P-wave groups are searched for. The times of maximum P- and S-amplitudes are then used as starting points for the determination of accurate P- and S-arrival times. The maximum S-wave amplitudes are utilised for determining local magnitudes. The whole procedure is checked by simultaneous preliminary hypocentre location providing estimates of local magnitudes and a compatibility check of the candidate P- and S-phases. The closest station to the earthquake cluster is used as a master, and the phase search at the remaining stations is governed by the P- and S-phases identified at the master station. Thanks to the use of apriori information on the approximate position of hypocentres, the procedure is also capable of picking the individual P- and S-phases of sequences of overlapping swarm events. The performance of the procedure was tested by comparison of the automatically and interactively created catalogues of the January 1997 NW-Bohemia micro-earthquake swarm. With stations located at epicentral distances between 0 and 20 km, the difference between hypocentre coordinates obtained by automatic and interactive processing did not exceed 80 m for 86% events. All events above magnitude 0.5 were identified, and the automatically determined polarity of first P-wave motion proved to be correct in 89% of them.     

Lunar transient phenomena (LTP): Manifestations,site distribution,correlations and possible causes

The author has been compiling a catalog of LTP reports (temporary changes observed on the moon). More than 1,400 of these observations, of which 1,353 have ancillary data, were analyzed in an attempt to determine the possible causes of LTP. There were 201 sites reported at least once; about $\text{1}\text{2}$ had two or more reports. One dozen sites contain 70% of all observations, and one site, Aristarchus, provides 30%. Of the dozen most reported sites, $\text{1}\text{2}$ are rayed and $\text{1}\text{2}$ are dark flat-floored craters. The distribution of sites strongly favors the borders of both the terra and marial sides of the maria. Many are within the maria, and a very few are inland; yet most of these are associated with dark flat areas.The phenomena manifest themselves in five categories, viz., Brightenings, or Darkenings, or as Gaseous, Reddish and Bluish events. Among the hypotheses proposed for their causes are tidal, low-illumination/thermoluminescence, magnetic-tail and solar-flare effects. Analyses were conducted to see if different phenomena had different causes. There is some suggestion that they do. As concerns the tidal effects. the strongest peaks are at 0.5 (apogee) for Gaseous and Darkenings phenomena, 0.6 for Reddish events, and 0.7 for Brightenings. Reddish LTP have the strongest correlation with sunrise, while Aristarchus, Plato, Ross D area, and Bluish phenomena have the strongest correlations with solar-flare activity that produced magnetic storms on earth. “All” observations, the ones labeled “Best” (probable true anomalies), and Aristarchus, showed minima in the first half and maxima in the last half of the anomalistic (tidal) period. Histograms of several individual sites, including neighboring ones, behave differently, e.g. Aristarchus and Herodotus. When observed data are compared with expected observations (assumed to be evenly distributed) there were various correlations. For the Best data, 12 and 10% of the LTP fall close to perigee and apogee, respectively, and 10% would be expected for each. Seventeen percent occur within one day after sunrise when 3% would be expected; 20% occur while the moon is in the earth's magnetopause where 14% would be expected, and 12% occurred the same day the earth had a magnetic storm where 3% would be expected.Charts of albedo vs. age of several points for ten features were constructed. From these the normal behavior of the features throughout a lunation period was obtained. Measures that depart 2 or more full steps in Elger's albedo scale, are considered to be anomalies. Several cases of anomalous measures show up; e.g., for points on the south wall of Eimmart an albedo of 3.5 was reported once at age 10 days while for age 9 days the average albedo was 8, as it was afterward at age 11 days. The 3.5 may have been an anomalous darkening but unnoticed by the observer. Most of the features remained stable. A few exceptions were found, with Dawes showing the most anomalies. These amounted to 12% by nights or 2% by individual measures. Thus, monitoring the moon may yield an LTP once in ten nights, or 50 observations.All hypotheses show correlations with some categories and some features. Sunrise correlation is the most frequent correlation. Few correlations involve as many as 50% of the observations. The distribution of all LTP sites is different from and unique compared with deep- and shallow-focus moonquake epicenters. Routine albedo measures reveal unobserved variations which amount to about 10% in nights of observation bu 2% of individual albedo measures.     

基于MEMS传感器的月震计安装水平和定向方案的研究

中国月震计宜于采用MEMS加速度计作为拾震传感器,以满足对重量、体积、功耗和可靠性等方面的要求.在无人登月探测中,为免使月震计的投放装置过于复杂,也为减小月震计系统的重量、体积和功耗,以及增加系统工作的稳定性和可靠性,不给月震计增加机械的水平和定向调节装置,本文根据机器人理论,通过旋转变换,论证了可以从倾斜、非定向安装的月震计观测到的月震波得到以月球北极为参考方向的水平坐标系的观测,并从实验上作了部分验证,从而为这一难题的解决找到一条可行的探索途径.     

华北地区强震活动与月相的关系及其机制

华北地区及其地震带的强震活动与月相密切相关。华北地区和河北平原、河淮及南海地震带强震大都发生在朔前后。郯庐和汾渭地震带强震多发生在上弦前后,依据华北地区强震孕育的地壳上地幔构造,探讨了引潮力触发地震的可能机制--潮致流体上涌触发模式,该模式的要点是:①上地幔和地壳内存在流体是孕育强震的必要条件;②深部流体可能快速上涌;③引潮力可能是触发流体快速上涌的主要作用力;④深部流体通过如应力腐蚀或雷宾德尔效应之类的非线性机制激发地震。     

Understanding the Moon’s internal structure through moonquake observations and remote sensing technologies

Explorations for the interior structure of the Moon mainly involve three technologies: the early gravitational observations via circumlunar satellites, the moonquake observations during the Apollo period, and the recent high-resolution remote sensing observations. Based on these technologies, we divided the development of the moon’s interior structure into three stages. The first stage is the discovery of high-density anomalous masses (mascons) on the lunar surface with the low-order gravitational field models, which were obtained by observing perturbations of the early lunar orbital satellites. The second stage is the preliminary understanding of the layer structure with the help of moonquake observations during the Apollo period. The third stage is the deep understanding of the structure of the lunar crust, mantle, and core, with the use of high-resolution remote sensing data and the reassessment of moonquake data from the Apollo’s mission. This paper gave detailed introduction and comments on different observation technologies, gathered data, and data processing techniques used at the three stages. In addition, this paper analyzed the current issues in the researches on the Moon’s internal structure and discussed the prospects for future explorations.     

Evidence of earthquakes triggered by the tidal force of the sun and the moon——On the temporal characteristics of the earthquakes in Xingtai,Hejian and Tangshan

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Evidence of earthquakes triggered by the tidal force of the sun and the moon

Studies by many scientists show that Hebei, China is an area with strong correlation between the tidal force and the occurrences of major earthquakes, the Xingtai earthquake of 1966, the Hejian earthquake of 1967 and the Tangshan earthquake of 1976 were triggered by the tidal force, in this paper the study on the common characteristics of their occurrence times confirms these facts. The computed times of maximum horizontal of the semi diurnal solid tide tidal force show that the occurrence times of the above mentioned earthquakes were close to the times of maximum horizontal tidal force of the semi diurnal solid tide at new moon or full moon. The Longyao earthquake of M=6.8, the Ningjin earthquake of M=7.2 and the Hejian earthquake of M=6.3 occurred tens of minutes after the maximum horizontal tidal force of the semi diurnal solid tides, and the Tangshan earthquake of M=7.8 occurred 16 minutes before the maximum horizontal tidal force. The tidal forces were directed to the west. This is their temporal characteristic. It is generally accepted that the 1969 Bohai earthquake of M=7.4 and the 1975 Haicheng earthquake were not triggered by the tidal force. These events did not show such characteristics. The temporal characteristics of the earthquakes indicate that the occurrences of these events were not random, but were controlled by the tidal force from the sun and the moon, and triggered by the tidal force. These facts agree with the triggering mechanism of the tidal force, are evidences of earthquakes triggered by tidal force.     

汶川8.0级地震前龙门山地区小震活动与固体潮的关系

通过对汶川8.0级地震前,龙门山地区小震活动与月球上中天、下中天时刻对应关系的讨论,得到龙门山小震活动与月球引潮力的低潮对应关系不明显.另外,对龙门山小震与固体潮理论曲线对应的讨论,得到每组小震的头震在接近固体潮曲线的谷底发生,即地震的发生与固体潮的低潮有关.在临近大震前,地震多发生在固体潮曲线的上升部位,即引潮力增长...     

地球和月球的弹性潮汐形变解

本文根据一个由较新的月震、月球形状、月球重力及月球天平动资料所建立的真实月球内部结构模型,解算了在地球和太阳的引潮力作用下月球表面的弹性潮汐形变。得到了表征月球弹性潮汐形变的特征数--月球勒夫数。这个结果与国外一些学者采用假想或简单月球模型所得结果有较大不同。同时,本文还根据近年来出现的新的地球模型,再次求解了地球的静态勒夫数。结果表明,采用不同的地球模型对解算地球的静态弹性潮汐形变的结果影响很小。     

Tidal Stress/Strain and the b-values of Acoustic Emissions at the Underground Research Laboratory, Canada

The correlation between the b-values of acoustic emissions (AEs) and the phase of the moon was investigated at the Underground Research Laboratory (URL) in Canada. The same data as those used in Iwata (2002) were examined, which showed that the occurrence of AEs is correlated with the phase of the moon. It was expected, therefore, that the b-value of the AEs would also be sensitive to tidal stress/strain fluctuations. We investigated the variation of the b-values as a function of the phase of the moon. Results show that b-values immediately following the times of full/new moon are higher than those at other times. Using AIC (Akaike Information Criterion) and random (Monte Carlo) simulations, it was confirmed that this feature is statistically significant. We also investigated whether or not there was a change in the b-values immediately before the times of full/new moon, but no statistically significant change was observed. The results suggest that the effect of stress/strain fluctuations on AE occurrences at the URL is asymmetric to the times of full/new moon.All authors are members of the Academic Robotics Group. In listing The Academic Robotics Group, the authors are endeavoring to place each of the participant institutions on an equal footing in terms of effort and authorship. M. A. Talamini is serving as presenter.     

The geomagnetic field at the Paleozoic/Mesozoic and Mesozoic/Cenozoic boundaries and lower mantle plumes

The data on the amplitude of variations in the direction and paleointensity of the geomagnetic field and the frequency of reversals throughout the last 50 Myr near the Paleozoic/Mesozoic and Mesozoic/Cenozoic boundaries, characterized by peaks of magmatic activity of Siberian and Deccan traps, and data on the amplitude of variations in the geomagnetic field direction relative to contemporary world magnetic anomalies are generalized. The boundaries of geological eras are not fixed in recorded paleointensity, polarity, reversal frequency, and variations in the geomagnetic field direction. Against the background of the “normal” field, nearly the same tendency of an increase in the amplitude of field direction variations is observed toward epicenters of contemporary lower mantle plumes; Greenland, Deccan, and Siberian superplumes; and world magnetic anomalies. This suggests a common origin of lower mantle plumes of various formation times, world magnetic anomalies, and the rise in the amplitude of geomagnetic field variations; i.e., all these phenomena are due to a local excitation in the upper part of the liquid core. Large plumes arise in intervals of the most significant changes in the paleointensity (drops or rises), while no correlation exists between the plume generation and the reversal frequency: times of plume formation correlate with the very diverse patterns of the frequency of reversals, from their total absence to maximum frequencies, implying that world magnetic anomalies, variations in the magnetic field direction and paleointensity, and plumes, on the one hand, and field reversals, on the other, have different sources. The time interval between magmatic activity of a plume at the Earth’s surface and its origination at the core-mantle boundary (the time of the plume rise toward the surface) amounts to 20–50 Myr in all cases considered. Different rise times are apparently associated with different paths of the plume rise, “delays” in the plume upward movement, and so on. The spread in “delay” times of each plume can be attributed to uncertainties in age determinations of paleomagnetic study objects and/or the natural remanent magnetization, but it is more probable that this is a result of the formation of a series of plumes (superplumes) in approximately the same region at the core-mantle boundary in the aforementioned time interval. Such an interpretation is supported by the existence of compact clusters of higher field direction amplitudes between 300 and 200 Ma that are possible regions of formation of world magnetic anomalies and plumes.     

The May 23 and 24, 1994 Taiwan earthquakes: comparison of source process between the two events

Inversion for the seismic fault rupture history is an important way to study the nature of the earthquake source. In this paper, we have selected two Taiwan earthquakes that occurred closely in time and located in the same region, inversed the distribution of the slip amplitudes, rakes, risetimes and the rupture times on the fault planes by using GDSN broad-band and long-period records and the adaptive hybrid global search algorithm, and compared the two events. The slip rate of every subfault calculated provides information about the distribution of tectonic stress and fault strength. To the former event (MS=6.0), the maximum slip amplitude 2.4 m and the minimum risetime 1.2 s are both located at the hypocentre. The latter earthquake (MS=6.6) consisted of two subevents and the second source has 4 s delay. The maximum slip amplitude 0.9 m located near hypocentre is corresponding to the minimum risetime 1.4 s, and the corresponding maximum slip rate 0.7 m.s-1 is similar to the peak value of other large slip rate areas. We consider that the latter event has more complicated temporal-spatial distribution than the former.     

关于2021年5月滇西漾濞MS6.4地震序列特征及成因的初步研究

2021年5月21日21时48分在滇西苍山西麓漾濞地区发生M_S6.4 （M_W6.1）强震,相关地震活动表现为一个典型的前震?主震?余震序列。本研究分别就该地震序列的构造背景、M1.0以上地震的双差定位、主要地震的矩张量反演和破裂传播方向、应力场反演及断层滑动趋势以及潮汐作用等方面进行了初步分析。矩张量反演结果表明,矩心深度为6.0 km。根据断层破裂传播方向分析结果及精定位余震分布判定,主震震源断层产状为走向137°,倾角75°,滑动角?167°,破裂沿南东向单侧扩展,右旋走滑含正断层分量。漾濞地震序列发生在红河断裂带北段延伸方向上的乔后—巍山断裂附近,但主震震源断层及主要余震的分布在走向和位置上均明显偏离已知的乔后—巍山断裂。地震序列受一个发育程度不高、含多级雁列构造的北西向为主、北东向为次的共轭走滑断层系统（本文称为“漾濞断层”）所控制,整体上沿北西向断层展布,主震与部分强余震为北西向断层活动所致,但中强前震和多数余震为北东向断层活动所致。中强震的断层破裂均为单侧扩展,北西向断层主要表现为南东向破裂扩展,而北东向断层沿两个方向破裂扩展,相邻地震还存在往返破裂现象。对截至5月23日所发生的M＞4.0前震和余震进行了全矩张量反演。利用漾濞地震震中15 km范围内20多个M_W＞3.4余震的比较可靠的震源机制解反演了该区的应力场,结果显示:主应力形状比φ＝（σ₂－σ₃）/（σ₁－σ₃）为0.46±0.17;最大主应力轴的方位角为188.0°±9.0°,倾伏角为12.4°±7.0°;中间主应力轴近直立,倾伏角为72.1°±11.3°;最小主应力轴的方位角为280.3°±7.0°,倾伏角为10.4°±12.0°。本文还对理论潮汐应变及应力进行了分析,结果表明,该地震序列受潮汐调制作用十分明显。5月18日18时及19日20时开始的两组前震群的首个主要地震以及5月21日晚发生的主震均发生在潮汐体应变和库仑应力的峰值附近,余震活动也与潮汐有明显的相关性。综合主要地震震源机制解、前震及余震分布、潮汐调制特征、基于应力场反演的断层滑动趋势分析以及滇西北地区以往类似地震活动研究结果,本文初步推断:漾濞地震受深部流体作用的影响明显,5月18日18时开始的第一次前震活动高潮从北西向断层的一个拉张性断层阶区开始,最大前震的震源断层为北东向断层,随后向北西方向迁移;19日20时开始的第二次前震活动高潮集中在主震震源附近。这些地震的触发及深部流体作用共同促进了北西向断层的活动,但主震的发生受深部流体作用为主。      

Large impact craters and the moon's orientation

This paper investigates the idea that large impact events have caused the moon to change its orientation in space. It is found that the very largest impact events, such as those which formed Imbrium and Orientale, probably did reorient the moon. This reorientation is primarily due to the change in the moon's moments of inertia consequent upon crater formation. The impulse delivered by the impact can at most unlock the moon's synchronous rotation for a few thousand years, and is thus not of major importance. The moon will attain its new orientation in less than a few times 10⁴ years as a result of tidal friction. Since the large craters eventually are filled by isostatic rebound and extrusive igneous activity, the moon may eventually regain its original orientation unless other phenomena cause new changes in the distribution of mass on its surface.     

云南地震的潮汐应力触发机制及相关天体位置图像

通过计算云南163个地震震源处沿地震主应力方向的潮汐应力分量,分析了地震的潮汐应力触发力学机制.结果表明,所研究的地震中有62%受到了潮汐应力的触发作用. 在此基础上,对受到潮汐应力触发的地震发震时的天体位置特征进行了研究,得到了具有潮汐应力触发物理基础的地震时的月日黄经差、月日赤纬和月日天顶距的分布图像.图像显示,云南地区的地震在新月期间和上下弦附近较易受到潮汐应力的触发;受到潮汐应力触发作用的地震发震时刻的月日赤纬有明显的密集分布条带特征,地震频次在月、日天顶距分别为30°～140°和20°～140°范围内为平均优势分布区间.     

不同类型地震断层上的固体潮汐库仑破裂应力特征

计算和研究了不同类型地震断层上的潮汐库仑破裂应力及其随纬度变化特征;通过对全球20395个地震断层发震时潮汐库仑破裂应力的计算,研究了受到潮汐库仑破裂应力促滑作用的不同类型地震断层的纬度分布特征.结果表明,断层上潮汐库仑破裂应力的性质和特征与断层的类型、走向和位置密切相关,同一时间段内不同类型地震断层上的潮汐库仑破裂应...     

潮汐触发地震研究进展综述

对近年来国内外潮汐调制触发地震研究进行了系统综述。 介绍了月相与地震活动的关系, 日月引潮力及其分量对地震触发的情况, 基于大样本统计的潮汐触发地震研究等内容。 月相与地震活动的简单对应是对潮汐触发地震的初步研究, 调制比是对这一现象的定量化描述。 潮汐应力分解及对地震活动影响的研究, 则是从力学的层面揭示两者之间的可能关系。 大样本统计则从统计的角度研究潮汐对地震的关系, 众多统计方法中应用较多的是Schuster检验, 它将震源机制、 潮汐应力、 统计检验等因素综合考虑, 定量地分析潮汐对地震的触发作用。     

固体潮应力张量对地震的触发作用

用无体力作用的平衡方程的型、型通解与有体力作用的平衡方程的特解相迭加得到自由边界条件下的潮汐应力张量.讨论了主应力和主应力轴随深度的变化, 在100公里的深度范围内, 主应力轴在空间的取向发生的偏转可达10左右(=30时).选用我国195~(?)年以来有精确断层面解的、Ms5.0的70个地震的资料, 研究了发震时刻对于潮汐流体静应力、潮汐最大剪应力、沿断层错动矢量的潮汐剪应力的位相分布.所得的结论是, 潮汐流体静应力与地震的发震时刻没有明显关系.潮汐最大剪应力对地震有一定的触发作用;沿断层错动矢量的潮汐剪应力对地震的触发作用更明显些;斜滑型地震对潮汐最大剪应力的位相有极好的相关性.