Salt weathering in dual-porosity building dolostones

The influence of rock fabric on physical weathering due to the salt crystallization of selected brecciated dolostones is discussed. These dual-porosity dolostones are representative of heterogeneous and anisotropic building rocks, and present highly complex and heterogeneous rock fabric features. The pore structure of the matrix and clasts is described in terms of porosity and pore size distribution, whereas the relative strength for each textural component is assessed using the Knoop hardness test. The whole characterisation process was carried out using the same samples as those used in the standard salt durability test (EN-12370), including connected porosity, the water saturation coefficient, fissure density, compressional wave velocity and waveform energy.

Results show the most important rock fabric elements to be considered are the matrix and clast properties and the nature of fissures. Firstly, a relatively weak matrix was the focus of major granular disintegration as it presents high porosity, low pore radius and reduced strength. Secondly, narrow micro-fissures appear to be important in the decay process due to the effectiveness of crystallization pressure generated by salt growth. On the contrary, macro-fissures do not contribute greatly to rock decay since they act as sinks to consume the high supersaturations caused by growth of large crystals. Additionally, an analysis of stress generated by crystallization was carried out based on the general situation of a lenticular crystal geometry. Finally, the relationships between whole petrophysical properties and durability were established using a principal component analysis. This analysis has clearly established that the durability of rocks affected by salt crystallization mechanisms diminishes in weaker and anisotropic rocks with high porosity and fissure density.     

Durability assessment of the Ala?at? tuff (Izmir) in western Turkey

Ala?at? tuff has been used extensively as a source of building stone for outdoor and indoor decorations since the historical times in and around the tourist town of Ala?at? (western Turkey). The use of the Alacati tuff in buildings has been made compulsory by the Ala?at? municipality, for preserving the historical appearance of the buildings, after 2005 in Ala?at?. It has been noticed that, evident deteriorations developed in tuff surfaces of the stone buildings and garden walls within 5?C6?years of their emplacement. Durability properties of the Ala?at? tuff are evaluated by determining the mineralogical, chemical, and physico-mechanical properties of the fresh tuff samples obtained from the only operative quarry in the area. Ageing tests such as Na₂SO₄ and MgSO₄ salt crystallization, freezing?Cthawing, and wetting?Cdrying were conducted on the fresh tuff samples to assess their durability. Additionally, the durability of the tuff is also evaluated by determining its average pore diameter, saturation coefficient, wet-to-dry strength ratio, static rock and slake-durability indices. Fresh Ala?at? tuff has high porosity and low unit weight and strengths and are classified to be very poor to moderately durable stone based on the test results of different durability assessment methods. Mineralogical and geochemical analyses have also been carried out on the deteriorated tuff samples collected from the surfaces of the stone buildings to determine the effect of weathering on tuff and the test results have been compared with those of the fresh tuff samples. There is no major difference observed between the mineralogy and chemistry of the fresh and weathered tuff samples thus, it has been concluded that physical weathering has been dominant in the area in deterioration of tuff.     

Impact of salt and frost weathering on the physical and durability properties of travertines and carbonate tufas used as building material

This study aims to understand the effect of salt and frost crystallisation on the petrophysical and durability properties of representative types of travertine and carbonate tufas. Results demonstrate that the studied travertines and tufas exhibit a very high durability against salt and ice crystallisation cycles, compared to carbonates rocks with similar porosity values. The variation of the loss of mass, effective porosity, capillary absorption coefficient, ultrasonic wave velocity and attenuation, and compressive strength was scarce during weathering tests. The evolution of petrophysical properties was slightly more intense after 30 cycles of salt crystallisation than 100 cycles of freeze–thaw. Petrophysical and durability properties of the travertines and carbonate tufas depend on porosity fraction and on the manner in which the vuggy porosity is connected. In the travertine facies, vuggy macropores show little connection and can be considered as separate-vug porosity. Their addition to interparticle porosity increases effective porosity and reduces their mechanical strength but does not significantly increase capillary transport and the effectiveness of salt and ice action over the stone. On the contrary, in the carbonate tufas, vugs act as touching-vug pores, as capillary imbibition coefficients reveal. However, scanning electron microscopy displays that they underwent microcracking processes related mainly to both thermal stresses and/or ice and salt pressures. These microcracks present little connection, and they do not enhance noticeably the water flow or decrease the mechanical properties. These results are finally discussed in terms of a nonlinear decay pattern, which with long periods of apparent stability might be followed by rapid and catastrophic decay.     

Compositional evolution of the zoned calcalkaline magma chamber of Mount Mazama,Crater Lake,Oregon

The climactic eruption of Mount Mazama has long been recognized as a classic example of rapid eruption of a substantial fraction of a zoned magma body. Increased knowledge of eruptive history and new chemical analyses of 350 wholerock and glass samples of the climactic ejecta, preclimactic rhyodacite flows and their inclusions, postcaldera lavas, and lavas of nearby monogenetic vents are used here to infer processes of chemical evolution of this late Pleistocene — Holocene magmatic system. The 6845±50 BP climactic eruption vented 50 km³ of magma to form: (1) rhyodacite fall deposit; (2) welded rhyodacite ignimbrite; and (3) lithic breccia and zoned ignimbrite, these during collapse of Crater Lake caldera. Climactic ejecta were dominantly homogeneous rhyodacite (70.4±0.3% SiO₂), followed by subordinate andesite and cumulate scoriae (48–61% SiO₂). The gap in wholerock composition reflects mainly a step in crystal content because glass compositions are virtually continuous. Two types of scoriae are distinguished by different LREE, Rb, Th, and Zr, but principally by a twofold contrast in Sr content: High-Sr (HSr) and low-Sr (LSr) scoriae. HSr scoriae were erupted first. Trace element abundances indicate that HSr and LSr scoriae had different calcalkaline andesite parents; basalt was parental to some mafic cumulate scoriae. Parental magma compositions reconstructed from scoria wholerock and glass data are similar to those of inclusions in preclimactic rhyodacites and of aphyric lavas of nearby monogenetic vents.Preclimactic rhyodacite flows and their magmatic inclusions give insight into evolution of the climactic chamber. Evolved rhyodacite flows containing LSr andesite inclusions were emplaced between 30000 and 25000 BP. At 7015±45 BP, the Llao Rock vent produced a zoned rhyodacite pumice fall, then rhyodacite lava with HSr andesite inclusions. The Cleetwood rhyodacite flow, emplaced immediately before the climactic eruption and compositionally identical to climactic rhyodacite (volatile-free), contains different HSr inclusions from Llao Rock. The change from LSr to HSr inclusions indicates replenishment of the chamber with andesite magma, perhaps several times, in the latest Pleistocene to early Holocene.Modeling calculations and wholerock-glass relations suggest than: (1) magmas were derived mainly by crystallization differentiation of andesite liquid; (2) evolved preclimactic rhyodacite probably was derived from LSr andesite; (3) rhyodacites contain a minor component of partial melt from wall rocks, and (4) climactic and compositionally similar rhyodacites probably formed by mixing of evolved rhyodacite with HSr derivative liquid(s) after replenishment of the chamber with HSr andesite magma. Density considerations permit a model for growth and evolution of the chamber in which andesite recharge magma ponded repeatedly between cumulates and rhyodacite magma. Convective cooling of this andesite resulted in rapid crystallization and upward escape of buoyant derivative liquid which mixed with overlying, convecting rhyodacite. The evolved rhyodacites were erupted early in the chamber's history and(or) near its margins. Postcaldera andesite lavas may be hybrids composed of LSr cumulates mixed with remnant climactic rhyodacite. Younger postcaldera rhyodacite probably formed by fractionation of similar andesite and assimilation of partial melts of wallrocks.Uniformity of climactic rhyodacite suggests homogeneous silicic ejecta from other volcanoes resulted from similar replenishment-driven convective mixing. Calcalkaline pluton compositions and their internal zonation can be interpreted in terms of the Mazama system frozen at various times in its history.     

Petrophysical behaviour and durability of the Miocene sandstones used in the architectural heritage of Tunisia (Roman aqueduct of Oued Miliane and Uthina Roman site)

In the present work, the relationship between intrinsic factors, mechanical properties and durability of Miocene sandstones used in the architectural heritage of Tunisia, specifically in the Roman aqueduct of Oued Miliane and Uthina site, are studied. The petrographic study and the characterisation of porous network have been carried out using optical microscopy, mercury intrusion porosimetry and laser scanner confocal microscopy (LSCM). The hygric behaviour has also been determined from water absorption under vacuum, drying, capillary water absorption and water vapour permeability. The mechanical properties have been assessed from compressive strength and abrasion tests. Rock durability has been evaluated from salt crystallization (sodium sulphate) accelerated aging tests. The results show good hygric behaviour characterised by a high evaporation rate and almost no retention of water; due to the macroporous character of the rock and the good connectivity of the pore network. Because of the poor lithification, the stone has a very low mechanical strength which makes it very vulnerable to the salt crystallization effects. The absence of chemically unstable minerals preserves the rock from chemical alteration. The durability of the building stone is mainly conditioned by salt loading of the monument.     

Direct observation of microcrack development in marble caused by thermal weathering

One of the properties that makes marble such an excellent construction and ornamental material is its low porosity. It is very difficult for water or decay agents to penetrate the internal structure of materials with no or few pores, so enhancing the durability of these materials. However, environmental temperature fluctuations bring about significant physical changes in marbles that result in an increase in porosity, due to the appearance of new microcracks and the expansion of existing ones. These cracks offer new paths into the marble which make it easier for solutions containing pollutants to penetrate the material. Thermal expansion tests were performed on three different types of marble known as White, Tranco, and Yellow Macael (Almeria, Spain), after which an increase in porosity (from 17 to 73% depending on marble type) was observed, mainly due to crack formation. The structural changes occurring during thermal expansion tests were more significant in the case of White Macael samples, a fact that is not only related to its mineralogical composition but also to the morphology of the grains, grain boundaries and crystal size. Our research suggests that thermally weathered White Macael marble could be more susceptible to decay by other contaminant agents than Tranco or Yellow Macael. The use of hot-stage environmental scanning electron microscopy is proposed as a valid tool for observing, both in situ and at high magnification, changes in the fracture system of building stones induced by thermal stress.     

Influence of pore morphology on the durability of sedimentary building stones from Aragon (Spain) subjected to standard salt decay tests

The aim of the present article is to identify the influence of the pore morphology on the physical behaviour and durability of natural stone. Fifteen sedimentary rocks commonly used in the cultural and architectural heritage of Aragon (Spain) were characterized. The petrography, porous structure, fluid transport properties and durability of these rocks were analysed. They were classified into two different groups according to the results of the different tests. For each of these groups the physical behaviour was established. A principal components analysis was used in order to examine the correlation between pore structure, hydric properties and durability. The results show that the percentage of pore throats <0.1 μm control the fluid transport properties, have an important influence on stone durability, and can be used to predict resistance to salt decay while the average pore size does not. Stones with a high percentage of pore throats <0.1 μm are less susceptible to salt decay than stones with higher pore size if their pore network is characterized by high tortuosity and low connectivity.     

A comparison of the properties and salt weathering susceptibility of natural and reconstituted stones of the Orval Abbey (Belgium)

The Orval Abbey, a major monument of southern Wallonia, Belgium, was partly destroyed and rebuilt several times between the Middle Ages and the present time. The oldest parts are made of natural stones of local origin (Bajocian and Sinemurian limestones) and the most recent parts are mostly made of reconstituted stone. The process of reconstituted stone making is not known. Although confronting the same environmental conditions, the reconstituted stone is much more susceptible to weathering than the natural limestones, especially to salt crystallisation. The present study compared the mineralogical and petrophysical properties of these building materials to gather information on the making of the reconstituted stone and to understand the difference in salt susceptibility between natural and reconstituted stones. Microscopic observations and petrophysical measurements showed that the reconstituted stone is composed of debris of Sinemurian and Bajocian limestone and cement, and the salt efflorescences were thenardite. Within the cement, amorphous grains were found that may correspond to grains of clinker, which have not reacted during stone making. Although its porosity and water transfer properties were close to that of the Bajocian limestone, its pore access distribution was centred around 0.1 μm. Furthermore, the details of the pore size distribution allowed calculating salt susceptibility indices that were very high in the case of the reconstituted stone. Thus, the composition of the cement and the pore size distribution are likely the two factors explaining a high susceptibility of the reconstituted stone to salt weathering.     

Petrochemistry of Volcanic Rocks in the Hishikari Mining Area of Southern Japan, with Implications for the Relative Contribution of Lower Crust and Mantle-derived Basalt

Abstract. This study presents the petrographical, mineralogical, and geochemical characteristics of Late Pliocene‐Pleistocene volcanic rocks distributed in the Hishikari gold mining area of southern Kyushu, Japan, and discusses their origin and evolution. The Hishikari volcanic rocks (HVR), on the basis of age and chemical compositions, are divided into the Kurosonsan (2.4–1.0 Ma) and Shishimano (1.7–0.5 Ma) Groups, which occur in the northern and southern part of the area, respectively. Each group is composed of three andesites and one rhyodacite. HVR are characterized by high concentrations of incompatible elements compared with other volcanic rocks in southern Kyushu, and have low Sr/Nd and high Th/U, Th/Pb, and U/Pb ratios compared with typical subduction‐related arc volcanic rocks. Modal and whole‐rock compositions of the HVR change systematically with the age of the rocks. Mafic mineral and augite/hypersthene ratios of the andesites decrease with decreasing age in the Kurosonsan Group, whereas in the Shishimano Group, these ratios are higher in the youngest andesite. Similarly, major and trace element compositions of the younger andesites in the former group are enriched in felsic components, whereas in the latter group the youngest andesite is more mafic than older andesites. Moreover, the crystallization temperature of phenocryst minerals decreases with younger age in the former group, whereas the opposite trend is seen in the latter group. Another significant feature is that rhyodacite in the Shishimano Group is enriched in felsic minerals and incompatible elements, and exhibits higher crystallization temperatures of phenocryst minerals than the rhyodacite of the Kurosonsan Group. Geochemical attributes of the HVR and other volcanic rocks in southern Kyushu indicate that a lower subcontinental crust, characterized by so‐called EMI‐type Sr‐Nd and DUPAL anomaly‐like Pb isotopic compositions, is distributed beneath the upper to middle crust of the Shimanto Supergroup. The HVR would be more enriched in felsic materials derived from the lower crust by high‐alumina basaltic magma from the mantle than volcanic rocks in other areas of southern Kyushu. The Kurosonsan Group advanced the degree of the lower crust contribution with decreasing age from 51 %, through 61 and 66 % to 77 %. In the Shishimano Group, the younger rhyodacite and andesite are derived from hotter magmas with smaller amounts of lower crust component (58 and 57 %) than the older two andesites (65 % and 68 %). We suggest that the Shishimano rhyodacite, which is considered to be responsible for gold mineralization, was formed by large degree of fractional crystallization of hot basaltic andesite magma with less lower crustal component.     

Observation of Pore Spaces and Microcracks Using a Fluorescent Technique in Some Reservoir Rocks of Oil, Gas and Geothermal Fields in the Green Tuff Region, Japan

Abstract: Pore spaces and microcracks in representative oil, gas and geothermal reservoir rocks from the Green Tuff region, Japan, were examined using a fluorescent technique. This technique was developed to visualize microscopically pore spaces and microcracks filled with synthetic resin mixed with fluorescent paint under ultraviolet light. Various morphology of pore spaces and microcracks was clearly identified. Spaces in studied reservoir rocks are classified into following three types: pore spaces in matrix, pore spaces in particles, and microcracks. It is observed that valuable oil and gas reservoir rocks relatively include many pore spaces, while microcracks are important for geothermal rocks. Correlation between textural characteristics and porosity or permeability was found in the oil reservoir rocks. Effective permeability depends upon pore spaces in matrix more than upon other components such as pore spaces in particles and microcracks. Looseness in matrix caused by larger grain size of particles is strongly correlated with permeability. Pore spaces play an important role as a reservoir in oil and gas fields, but are less important in geothermal field. Instead, microcracks are important for geothermal reservoir system.     

Extreme ductile deformation of fine-grained salt by coupled solution-precipitation creep and microcracking: Microstructural evidence from perennial Zechstein sequence (Neuhof salt mine,Germany)

Microstructural study revealed that the ductile flow of intensely folded fine-grained salt exposed in an underground mine (Zechstein-Werra salt sequence, Neuhof mine, Germany) was accommodated by coupled activity of solution-precipitation (SP) creep and microcracking of the halite grains. The grain cores of the halite aggregates contain remnants of sedimentary microstructures with straight and chevron shaped fluid inclusion trails (FITs) and are surrounded by two concentric mantles reflecting different events of salt precipitation. Numerous intra-granular or transgranular microcracks originate at the tips of FITs and propagate preferentially along the interface between sedimentary cores and the surrounding mantle of reprecipitated halite. These microcracks are interpreted as tensional Griffith cracks. Microcracks starting at grain boundary triple junctions or grain boundary ledges form due to stress concentrations generated by grain boundary sliding (GBS). Solid or fluid inclusions frequently alter the course of the propagating microcracks or the cracks terminate at these inclusions. Because the inner mantle containing the microcracks is corroded and is surrounded by microcrack-free outer mantle, microcracking is interpreted to reflect transient failure of the aggregate. Microcracking is argued to play a fundamental role in the continuation and enhancement of the SP–GBS creep during halokinesis of the Werra salt, because the transgranular cracks (1) provide the ingress of additional fluid in the grain boundary network when cross-cutting the FITs and (2) decrease grain size by splitting the grains. More over, the ingress of additional fluids into grain boundaries is also provided by non-conservative grain boundary migration that advanced into FITs bearing cores of grains. Described readjustments of the microstructure and mechanical and chemical feedbacks for the grain boundary diffusion flow in halite-brine system are proposed to be comparable to other rock-fluid or rock-melt aggregates deforming by the grain boundary sliding (GBS) coupled deformation mechanisms.     

Evaluation of Portuguese limestones’ susceptibility to salt mist through laboratory testing

The salt mist present in the coastal shoreline constitutes an important weathering agent of the building materials applied in these regions. Portugal has an extensive coastline, which has a high population density. It holds a long tradition in the use of stone as a building material, due to the abundance of this natural resource, but also because of its durability and beauty. Considering the main ornamental stones mined in Portugal, limestones are the most susceptible to the action of saline atmospheric aerosol, because, in most cases, they present open porosities higher than those of other stone types. This feature facilitates the penetration of saline aerosol in their structures. Six widely applied Portuguese limestones, with different technological properties, were selected for this study. After accessing their petrographic and main technological features, the limestones were submitted to salt mist test. The test method, established in the respective European standard, was complemented with further determinations (variation on water absorption and flexural strength after salt mist cycling). The results allowed evaluating the limestones’ suitability for the main types of applications and for specific usage conditions, within each one. Thus, it was possible to set the recommended uses for each limestone, in order to maximize its durability. Salt mist testing made possible to determine the limestones’ resistance to the climatic conditions of coastal areas. The detailed analysis of the salt mist results strengthens the knowledge that the open porosity plays a decisive role in the limestones’ behaviour to this test.     

Impact of in-pore salt crystallization on transport properties

Precipitation of salts in confined spaces is the key mechanism for rock weathering and damage to building materials. To date there is no comprehensive study of the parameters influencing the reduction of pore space by salt crystals and the consequences for transport and damage by crystallization pressure. A novel method is presented to quantify pore clogging (i.e., the degree to which crystallization of salts interferes with transport of solution in porous materials). After drying capillary-saturated stone specimens containing salt solutions, the rate of capillary uptake of decane into the salt-contaminated specimens is measured. By treating the salt-contaminated material as a bilayer, the width of the crystallization front and the degree of pore filling can be determined. Two model materials with different pore size distributions (Indiana and Highmoor limestone) and three salts (sodium chloride, sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate) are selected for this study. It is shown that pore clogging results from the interplay between pore size distribution and salt properties. Different scenarios are discussed to link pore clogging with salt damage.     

不同岩性火山岩孔隙度压力敏感性及其影响因素：以长岭断陷火山岩为例

为了解不同岩性火山岩孔隙度的压力敏感性,笔者选取长岭断陷安山岩、角砾凝灰岩和凝灰岩的代表性岩样,分别进行3.4、8.3、13.1、17.9、22.8、27.6、32.4、37.2 MPa多个覆压条件下的气体法孔隙度测量。结果表明,随着压力的增大,3种岩性岩样的孔隙度呈不同幅度的减小,幅度减小程度由大到小的岩性依次为凝灰岩、角砾凝灰岩、安山岩;说明凝灰岩的孔隙压力敏感性较强、角砾凝灰岩的孔隙压力敏感性居中、安山岩的孔隙压力敏感性最弱。经X射线衍射全岩分析、偏光显微镜下岩石薄片鉴定、高压压汞仪实验和基于CPMG脉冲序列的核磁共振实验分析显示,岩石组份、颗粒分选、孔径分布是影响孔隙压力敏感性的关键因素;塑性矿物体积分数越大、颗粒越小、孔径越小,相应孔隙度的压力敏感性越强。     

The Petrology and Geochemistry of the Aniakchak Caldera-forming Ignimbrite, Aleutian Arc, Alaska

Aniakchak caldera, Alaska, produced a compositionally heterogeneousignimbrite 3400 years ago, which changes from rhyodacitic atthe base to andesitic at the top of the eruptive sequence. Interpretationsof compositionally heterogeneous ignimbrites typically includeeither in situ fractional crystallization of mafic magma andgeneration of a stratified magma body or replenishment of asilicic magma chamber by mafic inputs. Another possibility,silicic replenishment of a more mafic chamber, exists. Geochemicalcharacteristics of the caldera-forming rhyodacite and severallate pre-caldera rhyodacites indicate independent origins foreach, within a maximum of 5000 years prior to caldera formation.Isotopic considerations preclude derivation of the caldera-formingrhyodacite from the caldera-forming andesite. However, the caldera-formingrhyodacite can be explained as the residual liquid of a mostlycrystallized basalt, with addition of crustal material. TheAniakchak andesite probably formed in a shallow chamber by successivemixing events involving small volumes of basalt and rhyodacite,together with contamination. The pre-caldera rhyodacites representerupted portions of intruding silicic magma, whereas anotherportion homogenized with the resident mafic magma. The caldera-formingevent reflects a large influx of rhyodacite, which erupted beforesignificant mixing occurred and also triggered draining of muchof the andesitic magma from the chamber. KEY WORDS: Aniakchak; caldera-forming eruption; geochemistry; ignimbrite; silicic replenishment     

In situ observations of bubble growth in basaltic,andesitic and rhyodacitic melts

Bubble growth strongly affects the physical properties of degassing magmas and their eruption dynamics. Natural samples and products from quench experiments provide only a snapshot of the final state of volatile exsolution, leaving the processes occurring during its early stages unconstrained. In order to fill this gap, we present in situ high-temperature observations of bubble growth in magmas of different compositions (basalt, andesite and rhyodacite) at 1,100 to 1,240 °C and 0.1 MPa (1 bar), obtained using a moissanite cell apparatus. The data show that nucleation occurs at very small degrees of supersaturaturation (<60 MPa in basalt and andesite, 200 MPa in rhyodacite), probably due to heterogeneous nucleation of bubbles occurring simultaneously with the nucleation of crystals. During the early stages of exsolution, melt degassing is the driving mechanism of bubble growth, with coalescence becoming increasingly important as exsolution progresses. Ostwald ripening occurs only at the end of the process and only in basaltic melt. The average bubble growth rate (G _R) ranges from 3.4 × 10^?6 to 5.2 × 10^?7 mm/s, with basalt and andesite showing faster growth rates than rhyodacite. The bubble number density (N _B) at nucleation ranges from 7.9 × 10⁴ mm^?3 to 1.8 × 10⁵ mm^?3 and decreases exponentially over time. While the rhyodacite melt maintained a well-sorted bubble size distribution (BSD) through time, the BSDs of basalt and andesite are much more inhomogeneous. Our experimental observations demonstrate that bubble growth cannot be ascribed to a single mechanism but is rather a combination of many processes, which depend on the physical properties of the melt. Depending on coalescence rate, annealing of bubbles following a single nucleation event can produce complex bubble size distributions. In natural samples, such BSDs may be misinterpreted as resulting from several separate nucleation events. Incipient crystallization upon cooling of a magma may allow bubble nucleation already at very small degrees of supersaturation and could therefore be an important trigger for volatile release and explosive eruptions.     

Evaluation of the physico-mechanical parameters affecting the deterioration rate of Ahlat ignimbrites (Bitlis,Turkey)

The paper principally focuses on the durability assessment of various stratigraphic levels of Ahlat ignimbrites collected from the eastern region of Turkey. A total of four different ignimbrite types with dissimilar color, texture and particularly welding degree were tested in laboratory. The laboratory tests performed on the ignimbrite specimens indicate that the welding degree as well as the lithic material content mainly controls the strength and capillarity properties of the ignimbrites. In addition, the durability of highly porous ignimbrites strongly depends upon the degree of welding. The effect of several weathering agents on the ignimbrites was evaluated on the basis of decay constant parameter. Accordingly, salt and ice crystallization pressures are a couple of major destructive agents acting within the micropores of the ignimbrites. Conversely, the investigated specimens are relatively durable against cyclic wetting–drying. Statistical evaluations reveal that the pore diameter is the major controlling factor on the deterioration rate of the ignimbrites after specifically recurrent freeze–thaw cycles. Moreover, the dry unit weight of the ignimbrites is more significant than the uniaxial compressive strength considering the deterioration rates during wetting–drying and salt crystallization. A less significant relationship was obtained between pore diameter and salt crystallization decay constant.     

Alteration kinetics of natural stones due to sodium sulfate crystallization: can reality match experimental simulations?

Salt decay is a very destructive mechanism that affects frequently the porous building materials of our architectural heritage. Sodium sulfate is one of the salts found in this context. It usually demonstrates high destructive power in salt crystallization tests because it can crystallize not only during evaporative processes but also when the temperature drops or when the salt solution comes into contact with pre-existing crystals. However, the use of extreme temperatures or successive wet/dry cycles also makes these tests unrepresentative of reality. To verify whether sodium sulfate can also be so destructive in field conditions, we have performed crystallization tests consisting of a single isothermal drying event. Three natural stones, relevant for the architectural heritage, were used for the purpose: Bentheimer sandstone, Ançã limestone, and a current Portuguese limestone of low porosity. The stones gave rise to distinct salt decay patterns: efflorescence, multilayer delamination and unilayer delamination, respectively. These morphological alterations were characterized at the micrometer scale by a new method based on what we have called the alteration kinetics curve. Such curve is calculated from topographic profiles obtained by a non-contact optical technique. The multilayer and unilayer delamination decay were also monitored by time-lapse photography. The work led us to conclude that sodium sulfate can indeed be also very destructive in field-representative conditions. Moreover, it showed that the optical method can be a valuable aid in the development of more realistic salt crystallization tests.     

SH材料加固夯筑遗址土耐久性试验及机理研究

以添加SH材料加固的明长城古浪段夯筑遗址土为研究对象,对其重塑样进行紫外老化试验、冻融循环试验及耐盐、耐碱试验,研究其力学强度特征及耐久性能,并采用扫描电镜（SEM）、EDS能谱分析以及粒度分析研究SH材料加固夯筑遗址土的机理。试验结果表明,经紫外老化的SH固化后试样的无侧限抗压强度随老化时间增长呈先增后降,SH含量高的试样强度呈一直增长的趋势;随着冻融循环次数的增加,试样的无侧限抗压强度逐渐降低,质量损失率逐渐增加,其中SH固含量为0.8%的试样表现出极好的耐冻性能;相比素土,加固后的试样耐盐、耐碱性能明显有所提高。由机理分析得出,SH材料主要通过团聚、氢键、架桥和包裹等作用使土颗粒排列紧密、增强连接性,提高了遗址土的各种性能;SH材料加固夯筑遗址土具有良好的耐久性能。     

Trace element geochemistry of high alumina basalt - Andesite - Dacite - Rhyodacite lavas of the Main Volcanic Series of Santorini Volcano,Greece

Trace element systematics throughout the cal-calkaline high alumina basalt — basaltic andesite — andesite — dacite — rhyodacite lavas and dyke rocks of the Main Volcanic Series of Santorini volcano, Greece are consistent with the crystal fractionation of observed phenocryst phases from a parental basaltic magma as the dominant mechanism involved in generating the range of magmatic compositions. Marked inflection points in several variation trends correspond to changes in phenocryst mineralogy and divide the Main Series into two distinct crystallisation intervals — an early basalt to andesite stage characterised by calcic plagioclase+augite+olivine separation and a later andesite to rhyodacite stage generated by plagioclase augite+hypersthene+magnetite+apatite crystallisation. Percent solidification values derived from ratios of highly incompatible trace elements agree with previous values derived from major element data using addition-subtraction diagrams and indicate that basaltic andesites represent 47–69%; andesites 70–76%; dacites ca. 80% and rhyodacite ca. 84% crystallisation of the initial basalt magma. Least squares major element mixing calculations also confirm that crystal fractionation of the least fractionated basalts could generate derivative Main Series lavas, though the details of the least squares solutions differ significantly from those derived from highly incompatible element and addition-subtraction techniques. Main Series basalts may result from partial melting of the mantle asthenosphere wedge followed by limited olivine+pyroxene+Cr-spinel crystallisation on ascent through the sub-Aegean mantle and may fractionate to more evolved compositions at pressures close to the base of the Aegean crust. Residual andesitic to rhyodacite magmas may stagnate within the upper regions of the sialic Aegean crust and form relatively high level magma chambers beneath the southern volcanic centres of Santorini. The eruption of large volumes of basic lavas and silicic pyroclastics from Santorini may have a volcanological rather than petrological explanation.