大气层结和海气交换作用影响的海面风剖面研究

风速剖面是各类工程结构抗风设计的关键参数。为了准确估算近海各类工程建筑结构承受的风荷载作用,通过在对数风剖面中引入大气稳定度函数和拖曳系数来刻画大气层结和海气交换作用对近海风速剖面的影响并建立相应的模型,最后利用强台风“黑格比”(0814号)的实测数据对模型进行了验证。研究结果表明:大气层结和海气交换作用对台风“黑格比”风速剖面有一定的影响,考虑大气层结和海气交换作用的风速剖面较对数剖面更能准确描述台风过程的风速剖面特征。      

EVALUATION OF SURFACE-LAYER WIND PROFILES WITH HEIFE OBSERVATIONS

In this paper the mean wind speed profiles in the atmospheric surfacelayer over oasis, sand, and Gobi desert surfaces in the HEIhe river FieldExperiment (HEIFE) area are discussed for various stability conditions. Themathematical representation of mean wind speed profiles obtained fromdifferent sources are used to estimate the mean wind speeds, and the resultsare compared with observed wind speed data obtained at 20 m meteorologicaltowers over different ground surfaces. It is found that for unstable and neutral conditions, a compositeexponential profile and flux-profile relationship can be used to describe thewind speed profile in the atmospheric surface layer over homogeneoussurfaces, the composite exponential profile giving a relatively high accuracyin the estimation of wind speed profiles. For stable conditions, thecomposite exponential profile also can be used to estimate the wind speedprofile, but for very stable conditions, the accuracy is not good. For thoseconditions, flux-profile equations can give estimates of the wind speedprofile with relatively high accuracy.     

渤海西岸空气动力学粗糙度特征分析

利用2009年12月至2010年11月渤海西岸大港风能塔观测得到的风速、风向和温度梯度资料,计算了风能塔周围空气动力学粗糙度Z0。对比分析了风廓线法和风速标准差法的计算结果,讨论了风速标准差法的适用性以及下垫面空间非均一性对粗糙度的影响。结果表明：风能塔三个主风向上的平均粗糙长度为：0.1319m(N),0.0386m(SE)和0.0182m(SW)。通过严格条件限制,利用风速标准差法可以得到与风廓线法相同的计算效果。同一方位上,利用10-30 m资料计算得到的粗糙度长度的季节差异相对较小,而50-70 m的计算结果差异相对较大。在相同高度上,粗糙度长度计算结果亦存在明显季节差异,反映了随季节变化的植被对地表粗糙度的影响。     

A simple unified theory for flow in the canopy and roughness sublayer

The mean flow profile within and above a tall canopy is well known to violate the standard boundary-layer flux–gradient relationships. Here we present a theory for the flow profile that is comprised of a canopy model coupled to a modified surface-layer model. The coupling between the two components and the modifications to the surface-layer profiles are formulated through the mixing layer analogy for the flow at a canopy top. This analogy provides an additional length scale—the vorticity thickness—upon which the flow just above the canopy, within the so-called roughness sublayer, depends. A natural form for the vertical profiles within the roughness sublayer follows that overcomes problems with many earlier forms in the literature. Predictions of the mean flow profiles are shown to match observations over a range of canopy types and stabilities. The unified theory predicts that key parameters, such as the displacement height and roughness length, have a significant dependence on the boundary-layer stability. Assuming one of these parameters a priori leads to the incorrect variation with stability of the others and incorrect predictions of the mean wind speed profile. The roughness sublayer has a greater impact on the mean wind speed in stable than unstable conditions. The presence of a roughness sublayer also allows the surface to exert a greater drag on the boundary layer for an equivalent value of the near-surface wind speed than would otherwise occur. This characteristic would alter predictions of the evolution of the boundary layer and surface states if included within numerical weather prediction models.     

大小兴安岭林区风场动力降尺度对比研究

对2017年春季黑龙江省大、小兴安岭林区的6个代表站点10 m风场进行降尺度分析,并结合观测数据对比分析了WRF模式和CALMET降尺度模式的10 m风速、风向预报结果。结果表明：两模式逐小时风速预报与观测的相关系数为0.5-0.7,且随着风速的增加,模式的预报准确率逐渐提高,夜间的风速预报偏差较大,进入白天后,偏差明显减小。WRF模式对风速变化趋势的预报效果优于CALMET模式,与观测的风速相关性更高,而CALMET模式对较大风速的预报效果优于WRF模式。在风向预报方面,WRF和CALMET的风向模拟与观测风向均有较好的一致性,模式预报准确率较高的两个风向也刚好对应各站的盛行风向。同时,本文用回归方法对日平均风速进行订正发现,订正后各站的日平均风速预报准确率平均提高了50%,具有较好的业务应用价值。     

Airflow from mustard to fallow

Real terrain is complex and its effects on the atmosphere are not well understood. The two‐dimensional change‐of‐roughness problem is investigated in an experimental study of airflow from mustard to fallow. The surface friction velocity is found to overshoot and return slowly to the equilibrium value. The wind profile in the modified region is more nearly logarithmic than the Peterson model predicts. The simple Elliot theory is in fair agreement with the wind profile data.

Values for the ratio of the standard deviation of the vertical wind to the friction velocity reveal no variation with stability and are in close agreement with the value for laboratory flows. Values for the ratio of the standard deviation of the longitudinal wind component to the friction velocity are comparable to other recently determined atmospheric values and show a variation attributable to large‐scale terrain properties.     

华东沿海地带台风风廓线特征的观测个例分析

利用2007年的“韦帕”、2009年的“莫拉克”、2010年的“凡亚比”和2011年的“梅花”四个台风的GPS探空数据,本文对华东近海和沿海地带的台风风廓线特征进行分析。首先求出梯度风速及其对应的高度,在此基础上利用指数律和对数律对风廓线进行拟合,并对幂指数、10米高度的地表风速和梯度风速的风速比,以及由对数律定义的常通量层高度等参数进行计算,并对梯度风高度和常通量层高度进行比较。结果表明:登陆台风沿海地带风廓线的梯度风高度和常通量层高度有明显差异。本文还对登陆台风平均风廓线的各参数进行了计算,并对梯度风高度以下风廓线偏离对数律的原因进行了讨论。     

Wind structure near a city centre

Wind speed and temperature profiles to a height of 8 m were recorded for 30-, 60-, and 90-min averaging times over a striated snow surface at the geographic South Pole during the austral winter of 1975. A gradient Richardson number was calculated for each averaging time to determine conditions of neutral stability under which the logarithmic wind law would hold. A log-linear regression technique was used to determine values of aerodynamic roughness height (Z ₀) for those profile averages recorded in conditions of neutral stability. A plot of Z ₀ as a function of average wind direction revealed a variation in Z ₀ of almost three orders of magnitude, from 0.01 to 7 cm, over 120 deg of wind direction. A simple model is presented to justify the fact that aerodynamic roughness is a function of wind direction and erosion history.     

Sensitivity of Turbine-Height Wind Speeds to Parameters in Planetary Boundary-Layer and Surface-Layer Schemes in the Weather Research and Forecasting Model

We evaluate the sensitivity of simulated turbine-height wind speeds to 26 parameters within the Mellor–Yamada–Nakanishi–Niino (MYNN) planetary boundary-layer scheme and MM5 surface-layer scheme of the Weather Research and Forecasting model over an area of complex terrain. An efficient sampling algorithm and generalized linear model are used to explore the multiple-dimensional parameter space and quantify the parametric sensitivity of simulated turbine-height wind speeds. The results indicate that most of the variability in the ensemble simulations is due to parameters related to the dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), Prandtl number, turbulent length scales, surface roughness, and the von Kármán constant. The parameter associated with the TKE dissipation rate is found to be most important, and a larger dissipation rate produces larger hub-height wind speeds. A larger Prandtl number results in smaller nighttime wind speeds. Increasing surface roughness reduces the frequencies of both extremely weak and strong airflows, implying a reduction in the variability of wind speed. All of the above parameters significantly affect the vertical profiles of wind speed and the magnitude of wind shear. The relative contributions of individual parameters are found to be dependent on both the terrain slope and atmospheric stability.     

Determination of surface layer parameters at the edge of a suburban area

Vertical wind and air temperature profile related parameters in the surface layer at the edge of suburban area of Zagreb (Croatia) have been considered. For that purpose, adopted Monin–Obukhov similarity theory and a set of observations of wind and air temperature at 2 and 10?m above ground, recorded in 2005, have been used. The root mean square differences (errors) principle has been used as a tool to estimate the effective roughness length as well as standard deviations of wind speed and wind gusts. The results of estimation are effective roughness lengths dependent on eight wind direction sectors unknown before. Gratefully to that achievement, representativeness of wind data at standard 10-m height can be clarified more deeply for an area of at least about 1?km in upwind direction from the observation site. Extrapolation of wind data for lower or higher levels from standard 10-m height are thus properly representative for a wider inhomogeneous suburban area and can be used as such in numerical models, flux and wind energy estimation, civil engineering, air pollution and climatological applications.     

Wind profiles,momentum fluxes and roughness lengths at Cabauw revisited

We describe the results of an experiment focusing on wind speed and momentum fluxes in the atmospheric boundary layer up to 200 m. The measurements were conducted in 1996 at the Cabauw site in the Netherlands. Momentum fluxes are measured using the K-Gill Propeller Vane. Estimates of the roughness length are derived using various techniques from the wind speed and flux measurements, and the observed differences are explained by considering the source area of the meteorological parameters. A clear rough-to-smooth transition is found in the wind speed profiles at Cabauw. The internal boundary layer reaches the lowest k-vane (20 m) only in the south-west direction where the obstacle-free fetch is about 2 km. The internal boundary layer is also reflected in the roughness lengths derived from the wind speed profiles. The lower part of the profile (< 40 m) is not in equilibrium and no reliable roughness analysis can be given. The upper part of the profile can be linked to a large-scale roughness length. Roughness lengths derived from the horizontal wind speed variance and gustiness have large footprints and therefore represent a large-scale average roughness. The drag coefficient is more locally determined but still represents a large-scale roughness length when it is measured above the local internal boundary layer. The roughness length at inhomogeneous sites can therefore be determined best from drag coefficient measurements just above the local internal boundary layers directly, or indirectly from horizontal wind speed variance or gustiness. In addition, the momentum and heat fluxes along the tower are analysed and these show significant variation with height related to stability and possibly surface heterogeneity. It appears that the dimensionless wind speed gradients scale well with local fluxes for the variety of conditions considered, including the unstable cases.     

DERIVATION OF FLUXES FROM PROFILES OVER A MODERATELY HOMOGENEOUS FOREST

Measurements of fluxes and profiles of wind andtemperature are performed in the roughness layer ofa moderately homogeneous forest location. Weinvestigate to what extent vertical scalar fluxescan be derived from profile measurements. Theinfluence of inhomogeneities in the upwind terrainis investigated with footprint analysis and with aninhomogeneous surface-layer model. Four methods toestimate displacement height are suggested, amongthem is a method involving the structure parameterof the vertical wind. All methods give a decrease ofdisplacement height with increasing wind speed,while roughness length is found to increase withincreasing wind speed. For near-neutral conditionsdimensionless temperature gradients are found to besubstantially lower than the surface-layer valuesfound in the literature for homogeneous terrain with lowvegetation. Dimensionless shear however iscomparable with the surface-layer value. The heightof the roughness layer is 20 times the roughnesslength. Two schemes with locally derived surfaceparameters are tested to derive friction velocityand sensible heat flux from the profilemeasurements. These site specific schemes performsatisfactorily. A third scheme based on surface parameters chosen a priorifrom the literatureperforms significantly worse especially for low windspeed and unstable cases.     

相似误差订正方法在风电短期风速预报中的应用研究

为降低风电场短期预报风速误差,减少风电场短期风功率偏差积分电量,提高风电场发电功率预测准确率,分季节研究了相似误差订正方法对ECMWF单台风机预报风速的订正效果。结果表明:相似误差订正后不同风机预报风速的误差差距减小;预报风速的平均绝对偏差和均方根误差明显降低,其中夏季和秋季华能义岗风电场两个指标降低幅度均超过0.1 m/s、会宁丁家沟风电场均超过0.2 m/s;订正风速削减了原始预报的极值,可反映大部分时段实况风速3 h内的趋势变化,个别时段订正风速与实况趋势相反;订正后预报风速在风功率敏感区的平均绝对偏差明显降低,华能义岗风电场四季降低幅度在0.112~0.242 m/s之间、会宁丁家沟风电场四季降低幅度在0.131~0.430 m/s之间,有效降低了原始预报误差带来的短期风功率偏差积分电量扣分值;订正风速较原始预报更多分布在风功率敏感区。该方法实际应用灵活,对提高风电场短期预报风速准确率有可观的效果,并可有效减少短期风功率偏差积分电量考核。      

Mean horizontal wind profiles measured in the atmospheric boundary layer about a simulated block building

Instrumented wind towers are used to measure the three components of wind about a simulated block building. The mean horizontal wind profiles over the building are compared with wind profiles measured in the absence of the building and the wind speed deficit in the wake of the building is correlated.Horizontal mean wind speeds measured in the natural atmospheric boundary layer with and without the presence of a simulated building show excellent reproducibility and agreement with fundamental concepts of fluid mechanics. The data possess all the characteristic features reported from wind-tunnel studies of building flows. In the present study the turbulence intensity is of the order of 20% in the undisturbed flow whereas the free stream turbulence intensity of wind-tunnel studies is generally not more than 5%. The effect of smaller averaging periods and the structure of the turbulence will be reported at a later time.The velocity profiles measured in the undisturbed flow zones support the representation of a neutrally stable atmospheric boundary layer with a logarithmic wind profile.     

Markov Chain Simulations of Vertical Dispersion in the Neutral Surface Layer for Surface and Elevated Releases

Vertical dispersion in the neutral surface layer is investigated using a Markov Chain simulation procedure. The conceptual basis of the procedure is discussed and computation procedures outlined. Wind and turbulence parameterizations appropriate to the neutral surface layer are considered with emphasis on the Lagrangian time scale. Computations for a surface release are compared with field data. Good agreement is found for the variation of surface concentration and cloud height to distances 500 m downwind of the source. The functional form of the vertical concentration profile is examined and an exponential with exponent ∼1.6 is found to give the best fit with simulations. For elevated releases, it is demonstrated that an initial dip of the mass mean height from the simulation can be normalized for various release heights using a non-dimensionalized downwind coordinate incorporating advective wind speed and wind shear. The vertical distribution standard deviation (σ_z), as employed in Gaussian models, shows a fair degree of independence with source height but close examination reveals an optimum source height for maximum σ_z at a given downwind distance,x. This source height increases with downwind distance. Also the simulations indicate that vertical wind shear is more important than vertical variation of Lagrangian time scale close to the source, with a reverse effect farther downwind.     

Observed Wind Profiles and Turbulence Fluxes over an ice Surface with Changing Surface Roughness

Wind profile and eddy-correlation data obtained at two sites on a melting glacier surface in Iceland during the summer of 1996 are presented. Throughout the experiment the surface roughness increased rapidly from smooth to very rough, with the largest roughness element height obtained being about 1.7 m. In a layer close to the rough surface we find that the wind speed profiles were disturbed showing horizontal inhomogeneities as in a roughness sublayer. Its height was approximately two times the height of the main roughness elements (h) at both sites throughout the experiment. From the wind profiles and eddy-correlation data we calculated corrections for the displaced zero plane as a function of time and compared these with results obtained from a drag partitioning model. In general, the agreement was reasonable considering the ranges of uncertainty but the results indicate that the increasing horizontal anisotropy of the surface probably limits the use of the model. The values obtained for the roughness lengths are in good agreement with those calculated from a simple linear model, i.e., z₀/h = 0.5 with the frontal area index. Above the roughness sublayer the wind profiles, normalised standard deviations of wind speed, and the balance of the turbulence kinetic energy budget behaved as over an ideal homogeneous surface thereby confirming similarity of the flow.     

TK-2GPS人影火箭探空数据与L波段探空数据对比分析

利用TK-2GPS人影探测火箭探空数据,与L波段探空数据进行对比分析,结果表明TK-2GPS火箭探测仪能够比较好的描述温度、湿度、露点、风向、风速等气象要素的变化特征;TK-2GPS火箭探测仪温度廓线与L波段探测数据非常一致,且可以清楚的描述大气中存在的逆温特征;湿度露点等廓线存在一定的偏差,这也与两种探空资料的时间不同有关;TK-2GPS火箭探空仪数据在风速风向垂直廓线中存在突变,这可能与探测仪器稳定性及灵敏度有关。      

新疆风区下垫面动力学粗糙度估测值与模式定义值的对比

按风向风速标准差法估算了新疆风能资源详查区17座测风塔一定范围内的动力学粗糙度,并与期间利用的3 km和1 km分辨率的数值模式中的动力学粗糙度理论定义值进行了对比。结果表明:除了采用的landuse基数据在一些区域的错误判识而导致本研究的估测值与中、小尺度模式中的动力学粗糙度理论定义值有较大差别外,大多数比较接近,今后有必要对这些区域的landuse的分类进行客观订正;夏季强风区的动力学粗糙度估测值普遍小于中尺度模式的理论定义值;对于主、次风向上动力学粗糙度值极不均匀区域,风向与风速标准差估算法需结合使用;本研究估算的动力学粗糙度是在中性层结条件下进行的,对于中性层结条件较少发生的区域,该动力学粗糙度估算值的普适性将受到限制。     

Turbulence Characteristics of the Stable Boundary Layer Over a Mid-Latitude Glacier. Part I: A Combination of Katabatic and Large-Scale Forcing

Profile and eddy-correlation (heights of 4 and 10 m) measurements performed on the Pasterze glacier (Austria) are used to study the characteristics of the stable boundary layer under conditions of katabatic and large-scale forcing. We consider cases where large-scale forcing results in a downslope (or following) ambient wind. The analysis of averaged spectra and cospectra reveals low frequency perturbations that have a large influence on the variances of temperature and horizontal wind components and also alter the cospectra of momentum and sensible heat flux. Only the spectrum of the vertical wind speed is comparable to universal spectra. The low frequency perturbations occur as brief intermittent events and result in downward entrainment of ambient air thereby producing enhanced downward sensible heat fluxes and downward as well as upward momentum fluxes with various magnitudes and timescales. After the variances were high pass filtered, the normalised standard deviations of wind speed and temperature compare favourably to findings in the literature within the range 0>z/L>0.5. For larger z/L they deviate as a result of an increased influence from low frequency perturbations and thus non-stationarity. In line with this, the turbulent kinetic energy budget (at 4 m height) indicates that production (shear) is in balance with destruction (buoyancy and dissipation) within the range 0>z/L>0.3. Non-dimensional gradients of wind speed within the range 0>z/L>0.3 have a slope of about 3.5. The scatter for the dimensionless temperature gradient is quite large, and the slope is comparable to that for wind speed gradients. For z/L>0.3 the imbalance in the turbulent kinetic energy budget grows and non-dimensional gradients for wind speed and temperature deviate considerably from accepted values as a result of increased non-stationarity. Average roughness lengths for momentum and sensible heat flux derived from wind speed and temperature profiles are respectively 1 × 10^-3 m and 6 × 10^-5 m, consistent with the literature. The ratio (z_0h/z_0m) compares to those predicted by surface renewal models. A variation of this ratio with the roughness Reynolds number is not indicated by our data.