Contribution of Community Forestry in Poverty Reduction: Case Study of Multiple Community Forests of Bajhang District,Nepal

In Nepal, nearly half of the total land is covered by forest, which holds a potentially important position in promoting rural livelihoods and in alleviating rural poverty. The rural landscape that encompasses an agrarian economy, a fragile ecology, and a complex and differentiated society is changing rapidly in Nepal today. Although poverty alleviation has been one of the top priorities for national development since 1976, poverty still remains widespread, persistent and it is also an acute problem in Nepal, where people are in a state of deprivation with regard to incomes, clothing, housing, healthcare, education, sanitary facilities and human rights. Thus, Nepal is considered as one of the poorest countries in South-Asia, with 25.2% people living below the poverty line. The objective of this study was to assess changes in poverty of forest users brought on by the community forestry program, in order to analyze the level of participation in community forestry management activities. For this study, Bajhang district was chosen as the study site, which is one of the poorest and most remote districts in the country of Nepal. Different Participatory Rural Appraisal methods such as face-to face interviews, focus group discussions and key informants’ interviews including secondary data were used to gather information. The findings showed that the forest users’ participation in meetings, discussion and other activities, like community forestry management or silvicultural operation related to community forestry, was high. The assessment found that 42.3%, 32.6% and 25.1% of respondents strongly agreed, agreed and were neutral, respectively, towards the idea that poverty reduction from community forests had occurred. The results showed almost all the respondents were depended upon agriculture and/or forest resources for their livelihoods. Different ecosystem services such as ethnomedicines, aesthetic value and ecotourism, control of soil erosion/land-slides, water recharge and soil fertility have increased due to the decomposition of leaf litter. This was apparent from the formulation of community forests. Poverty in rural areas of the country is still higher than in urban areas and the incidence of poverty is the highest in the Far western Province where this research was conducted, Therefore, the government, policy makers and other stakeholders should work hand-in-hand to effectively reduce the poverty that persists in Nepal.     

贵州省乡村贫困空间格局与形成机制分析

以贫困态势严峻、区域内部贫困差异大的贵州省为研究区,分析了贵州省区县层面乡村贫困的空间异质性和空间依赖性格局,定量测度了乡村贫困空间差异的影响因素和因素效应的空间差异性,进而归纳了贵州省乡村贫困的形成机制。结果发现,贵州省区县乡村贫困具有时空稳定性,呈现出东、南、西部高而中、北部低的“马蹄”形空间异质性格局。区县贫困存在较强的空间依赖性,“高-高”型贫困地域即空间贫困陷阱区域,集聚分布在贵州省的东南部、南部。定量模型发现,坡度、到所在市中心的距离、青少年人口占比、少数民族人口占比是导致贵州区县层面乡村贫困空间差异的显著因素,且这些因素的效应水平呈现出不同的空间模式。产业发展受限、劳动力流动性差、金融和人力资本积累不足是贵州贫困空间形成的主导机制。最后建议扶贫政策层面应将基于地方和基于人的政策相结合。     

地理学视角下的中国乡村贫困——源起、进展与展望

乡村贫困一直是困扰中国的现实难题之一,消除贫困是全面建成小康社会以及乡村振兴战略顺利实施的基础。一直以来,乡村贫困是经济学、社会学、政治学、心理学等不同学科高度重视的问题,相关研究成果日趋增多,但对乡村贫困空间表达较弱。地理学具有空间格局研究的优势,近年来其对乡村贫困的研究较为活跃,重点关注乡村贫困的源起、空间分布、地理特征等内容,与其他学科有极强的互补性。论文梳理了地理学乡村贫困的相关研究成果,对其内涵与标准、测度与空间格局、影响因素与发生机理、反贫困策略等研究进行归纳总结与综合评述,探讨已有研究存在的主要问题与未来研究方向的发展趋势,为深入开展本领域研究提供参考。     

精准扶贫视角下中国东北农村贫困地域性特征及成因

基于结构性问卷,采用入户访谈及问卷调查的方法,解析中国东北地区农村贫困空间格局与地域性特征,并对区域内部典型农村贫困区贫困问题的形成机制进行探讨与解构。研究认为： 东北地区农村贫困人口与贫困县集中分布在大兴安岭南麓和黑、吉、辽三省与内蒙古东部交界地区以及中俄、中朝边境地区,形成东、西两大片区,西部片区呈带状自北向南延伸,东部片区内存在两个团块状贫困人口集聚区,整体表现出“大集聚,小分散”的空间分布特征。② 区域内部存在5个农村贫困高发区,分别为中俄北部边境贫困高发区、中俄东部边境贫困高发区、松嫩平原贫困高发区、西部贫困高发区、中朝边境贫困高发区;农村贫困发生率“北高南低,西低东高”的特征明显。③ 农村贫困群体以中老年人为主,文化水平整体较低,吃穿与医疗保障问题突出;罹患疾病以及耕地不足、耕地利用率低是导致东北地区农村贫困的主因,发展现代农业和外出务工是消除贫困的重要途径。 ④ 区域内部存在西部农牧交错区、东部边境山地朝鲜族聚居区、东部平原与丘陵过渡区三大典型农村贫困区,西部农牧交错区农村贫困问题的产生主要受农业生产结构单一、农产品市场价格下行、农户自身思想认识落后、基础设施建设滞后、区域自然生态条件不利等多种因素的协同影响;东部边境山地朝鲜族聚居区农村贫困问题主要由劳动年龄人口的持续性外流所引发的系列效应导致;东部平原与丘陵过渡区农村贫困问题的出现主要受地理位置偏远、地形复杂导致自然灾害多发、耕地资源不足的影响。     

THE ENVIRONMENTAL DIMENSIONS OF STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES: MISSING LINKS TO SUSTAINING DEVELOPMENT

The implementation of structural adjustment programmes has not paid sufficient attention to the environmental effects of prescribed reforms. Agriculture is often the largest sector contributing significantly to the generation of export revenue and the gross domestic product in many adjusting countries, including Ghana. Structural adjustments in this sector aim at removing constraints to productivity. In Ghana, these reforms include producer price increases, market liberalisation and exchange rate reforms. This paper examines the environmental effects of raised farmgate prices for cocoa and cotton cultivation. It argues that these policies have encouraged agricultural extensification, particularly given the main type of farming (slash and burn agriculture) practised in Ghana. Environmental degradation is occurring in many areas. Furthermore, cuts in public expenditure and the institution of cost-recovery schemes for previously subsidised services such as rural water supply may reduce farmers’ disposable incomes and their ability to pay for these services. Consumption of unsafe water exposes farmers to preventable water and hygiene related diseases which, given the high cost of medical services, may worsen poverty and further encourage agricultural extensification.     

乡村旅游精准扶贫的创新路径——基于社会保障理论的思考

乡村旅游发展能够给当地居民带来巨大的就业机遇,社区参与能够提高乡村居民整体的社会保障水平,这为吉登斯所倡导的“第三条道路”社会保障思想提供了现实依据,也为乡村旅游实现精准扶贫效果提供了创新路径。洛阳栾川重渡沟村的社会保障在乡村旅游的影响下经历了3个阶段,1999年前未发展乡村旅游时受国家干预主义影响较大,1999—2004年乡村旅游发展体现了经济自由主义的影响,而2004年至今的实践体现了经济自由主义与国家干预主义的融合,实现了政府与市场、公平与效率、权利与责任的相对均衡,实践中已初步实现了以就业保障为基础、以养老保障及最低生活保障等为内容的乡村社会保障的全面提高。研究表明,西方背景下形成的国家干预主义及经济自由主义在中国乡村市场经济实践中有着不同的诠释及呈现方式,乡村旅游精准扶贫的关键是社区力量的觉醒及培育,其创新路径是实现“以旅游换保障”,即实现乡村旅游经济功能向社会功能的转变。     

Spatial distribution of unconventional gas wells and human populations in the Marcellus Shale in the United States: Vulnerability analysis

Modern forms of drilling and extraction have recently led to a boom in oil and gas production in the U.S. and stimulated a controversy around its economic benefits and environmental and human health impacts. Using an environmental justice paradigm this study applies Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and spatial analysis to determine whether certain vulnerable human populations are unequally exposed to pollution from unconventional gas wells in Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio. Several GIS-based approaches were used to identify exposed areas, and a t-test was used to find statistically significant differences between rural populations living close to wells and rural populations living farther away. Sociodemographic indicators include age (children and the elderly), poverty level, education level, and race at the census tract level. Local Indicators of Spatial Autocorrelation (LISA) technique was applied to find spatial clusters where both high well density and high proportions of vulnerable populations occur. The results demonstrate that the environmental injustice occurs in areas with unconventional wells in Pennsylvania with respect to the poor population. There are also localized clusters of vulnerable populations in exposed areas in all three states: Pennsylvania (for poverty and elderly population), West Virginia (for poverty, elderly population, and education level) and Ohio (for children).     

黄土高原地区农村贫困空间演化及偏远特征

以县级行政区为研究单元,基于统计数据和时间距离数据,采用全局自相关、分组分析等方法探讨2010—2015年黄土高原地区农村贫困的时空格局分异,并运用区位偏远度模型对农村贫困水平和类型的偏远特征进行评价。结果表明:(1)黄土高原地区的农村贫困深度比贫困广度问题更为严峻,贫困类型以“双低”和“低广度高深度”型为主,农村贫困发生率和缺口率高值区呈现区域差异化特征。(2)农村贫困整体处于渐弱型发展路径,“双高”型区县比重显著下降。贫困发生率高值区向六盘山区逐渐收缩,贫困缺口率高值区在燕山—太行山区形成局部热点。(3)集中连片特困区与农村返贫区高度重叠,广度返贫区集中分布于宁夏六盘山区和吕梁山区,而深度返贫区则集中分布于燕山—太行山区。(4)在当前城乡地域系统中,各区县距中心城市的区位偏远度与贫困发生率呈现显著正相关,而与贫困缺口率未呈现明显的相关关系。距省会城市极偏远的区县应关注邻近地级城市发展的正向溢出效应,在交通建设上注重强化其与地级城市的公路联系。     

中国城镇化的农村减贫及其空间溢出效应——基于省级面板数据的空间计量分析

利用中国省级面板数据,运用空间计量模型,重点检验了2010—2017年间中国省域人口城镇化、土地城镇化和经济城镇化的农村减贫及其空间溢出效应。结果表明：①2010—2017年间中国省域农村贫困、人口城镇化和土地城镇化均表现出显著的空间集聚特征,而经济城镇化集聚现象呈现逐渐消减的态势。②人口城镇化对农村贫困主要表现为先缓解后加剧的“U”型特征,而经济城镇化则刚好与之相反,呈倒“U”型特点,土地城镇化对农村贫困的作用尚不明显,但主要表现出加剧农村贫困发生的潜在可能。③人口城镇化和经济城镇化对农村贫困产生了明显的空间溢出效应,同时,二者对农村贫困的空间溢出效应存在“门槛”现象。东部和中部地区的人口城镇化减贫直接效应门槛已基本突破,减贫潜力较弱,而大部分省份的人口城镇化减贫溢出效应门槛依然存在,益贫性的溢出效应仍然明显。相比之下,各省域经济城镇化减贫的直接效应和溢出效应门槛均已突破,整体上以益贫性为主。④城镇化发展过程中,应合理推进人口城镇化,加快完善相关制度改革。有效、有序地扩张城镇空间,优化城镇产业结构调整,壮大第三产业发展规模和强化其质量升级,增加城镇就业空间,提升城镇整体辐射带动效应。统筹协调区域人口、空间、资源等的分配与利用,充分发挥要素集聚带来的正向“外部性”作用,合力推进农村长效、稳定减贫,促进城乡协调与可持续发展。     

县域农村贫困化空间分异及其影响因素——以陕西山阳县为例

以国家扶贫开发重点县山阳县为研究区,通过空间自相关分析和分组分析方法探究山阳县农村贫困化的空间格局和类型;利用逐步回归、地理加权回归和地理探测器模型对山阳县农村贫困化影响因素进行分析,讨论影响因素效应水平的空间异质性及其交互作用。研究表明：① 山阳县农村贫困发生率具有较强的空间集聚性,形成6个热点集聚区和4个冷点集聚区;综合考虑农村贫困程度和空间连接性,将山阳县划分为低度贫困区、中度贫困区和高度贫困区。② 水网密度、到最近公路的距离、危房比例、农民人均可支配收入、外出务工人数比例、农户入社比例6个因素是山阳县农村贫困化的主要影响因素,各因素的影响效应具有空间异质性。③ 两因素交互作用要比单因素作用于贫困发生率时影响力更显著,各主要影响因素的交互作用类型有双因子增强型和非线性增强型两种。     

What kind of intensification? Agricultural practice, soil fertility and socioeconomic differentiation in rural Burkina Faso

In rural Burkina Faso, intensification has been an uneven process that has resulted in social costs, particularly in the form of uneven distribution of assets and disparate environmental trade-offs. This study examines the effects of wealth status on agricultural practice and soil fertility, arguing that differences in the practices of wealthier and poorer farmers lead to differential social and environmental outcomes. Two concerns are highlighted. First is the role of poverty in environmental degradation. Much of the debate about the role of wealth and poverty in environmental outcomes in developing countries has pinpointed poverty as the main causal explanation. Using studies of agricultural practices and soil fertility from several villages in southwestern Burkina Faso, this paper will counter this dominant view by showing that wealthier farmers farm much larger areas, have fewer trees in their fields, and use higher levels of animal traction which, in turn, has led to lower levels of soil fertility. A second concern is that while poorer farmers may have agricultural practices that minimize environmental degradation, their exclusion from key institutions that provide access to resources has serious livelihood consequences and potentials for increasing socioeconomic differentiation. The agricultural practices of wealthier farmers, while not optimal environmentally, result in higher levels of household wealth. A paradox emerges that while poorer farmers are conserving environmental resources, they are doing so at the expense of economic development and well-being.     

Understanding community forestry: a qualitative meta-study of the concept, the process, and its potential for poverty alleviation in the United States case

This paper provides an assessment of the conceptual basis of community forestry from around the world, based on case studies presented in the literature, mainly over the last decade. More than 400 documents were examined for this comprehensive qualitative meta-study (meta-theory, meta-analysis, meta-method, and meta-synthesis) of community forestry. An overall conclusion is offered regarding the extent to which community forestry can be adapted to foster practices that enhance livelihoods, particularly for poverty populations, in rural United States communities. Special attention is paid to signifiers of community empowerment and reflexivity as well as other elements of success suggested in the literature.     

Spatio-temporal trends in precipitation and their implications for water resources management in climate-sensitive Nepal

As one of the world's most water-abundant countries Nepal has plenty of water, yet resources are unevenly distributed, both spatially and temporally. Limited accessibility and poorly managed water resources continue to inhibit socioeconomic development. Poverty levels are high across the nation (57% of the population lives below the international poverty line) and population expansion, coupled with rapid environmental change, is thought to be placing substantial pressure on water resources; an irrefutable asset for sustaining livelihoods and an essential contributing factor for alleviating poverty. Precipitation is a vital water resource for much of the rural population, 80% of which are dependent on rain-fed agriculture for their livelihoods, and fluctuations in which can give rise to changing states of poverty. Here we provide a comprehensive spatiotemporal analysis of precipitation time-series data for Nepal and discuss the contribution of precipitation change to water resources management for this land-locked Himalayan nation. We show that precipitation totals have predominantly remained stable; precipitation extremes and variability indicate widespread decrease; and no clear variation in monsoon onset date is reported. Based on these results, we suggest that water resources management needs to focus on population and environmental pressures, rather than specifically mitigating for precipitation change.     

新疆边境贫困县自然地理环境影响因素实证分析

运用新疆17个边境重点贫困县市的面板数据,比较OLS与分位数回归方法验证自然地理环境对边境县(市)农民收入和农村贫困率的影响,结果表明:一定生产力背景下,自然地理环境对收入和贫困仍具有一定的负向影响,而作用机理非常复杂。同时,社会、经济发展措施也能从不同方向、水平上缓解自然地理条件的负面作用。     

Rural Poverty Patterns and Influencing Factors in Yunnan Province,China: Based on County Level Dataset

The identification of poverty at the county level is the precondition for poverty alleviation by formulating accurate strategies that are targeted for a certain area. Yunnan Province has the largest number of poverty counties in China. The vast number of people living under the poverty-line, and the deep degree of poverty across a wide distribution range, pose major challenges. Based on the rural poverty incidence data, this paper describes the rural poverty patterns in Yunnan Province in 2010 and 2015, and then it explores the main factors which influence the incidence and changes in rural poverty at the county level in Yunnan Province using a stepwise regression analysis method. This study found that the rural poverty in counties of Yunnan Province was deeply affected by natural conditions and the geographical environment. In 2010 and 2015, the rural poverty situation in the middle region of Yunnan Province was relatively light, while it was more serious in the northwest, northeast and south regions. The pattern of county poverty is in good agreement with the topography and landforms of Yunnan Province and the poverty-stricken areas. There are strong correlations between the incidence of rural poverty in Yunnan Province with both the annual per capita net income of rural residents and the degree of agricultural mechanization. These factors are related to the living standards and agricultural production necessary for the peasantry to sustain their livelihood. The change in the incidence of rural poverty at the county level in Yunnan Province from 2010 to 2015 is significantly correlated with changes in the value-added of the primary industries and the degree of agricultural mechanization. These correlations indicate that the development of primary industry plays a key role in the process of lifting rural residents in Yunnan Province out of poverty so they can achieve prosperity. Therefore, improving the annual per capita net income of rural residents and the degree of agricultural mechanization for rural areas in Yunnan Province are still the main points for focused efforts. In the current phase of poverty alleviation, Yunnan Province should emphasize increasing rural residents' income and agricultural production and management in order to formulate effective policies and measures for poverty alleviation.     

典型深度贫困县贫困格局及影响因素分析——以海伦市为例

深度贫困县是实施精准扶贫工作的重点区域,客观分析深度贫困县贫困格局及其影响因素,可以为制定扶贫策略提供科学依据。论文以黑龙江省海伦市为研究区,基于空间分析和数理统计方法,探索以贫困村和贫困人口为核心的贫困格局及其影响因素。结果表明：① 作为深度贫困县,海伦市贫困村和贫困人口均具有不平衡性,贫困村和贫困人口格局既具有关联性,又具有差异性;② 海伦市贫困村集中分布在150~250 m地形过渡地带,呈现多核心带状式分布态势;③ 海伦市贫困人口分布格局是自然因素与人文因素综合作用的结果,自然地理及农业生产、农村基础设施及社会福利因素是直接影响贫困人口分布格局的关键因素。建议从加强农业农村基础设施建设、提升抵御自然灾害能力,加快种植业结构调整和布局优化、提升农村产业发展水平,提升社会保障水平、降低致贫返贫风险,优化居民点体系、推动乡村各类要素的空间重组、结构重塑、功能重调等方面加强精准扶贫和乡村振兴工作。     

中国农村水贫困测度及空间格局机理

通过构建我国农村水贫困测度评价指标体系,并运用水贫困指数模型(WPI)及主客观综合赋权法,对我国2004～2009年31个省级行政单位农村地区水贫困状况进行测算,结果基本显示了近年来我国农村地区水贫困程度的分布格局。其中高水贫困地区为宁夏、海南、天津、甘肃、山西、吉林、重庆、新疆、贵州、内蒙古;中水贫困地区为陕西、青海、上海、辽宁、福建、黑龙江、安徽、北京、江西、湖北、河北;低水贫困地区为广西、云南、河南、浙江、湖南、山东、江苏、广东、四川、西藏。同时对我国农村水贫困空间格局机理进行研究,并就此提出治理农村水贫困问题的相关对策建议,力图为我国最终实现"三农"问题的协调发展提供决策依据及政策性启示。     

深度贫困地区农户脱贫稳定性测度及影响机理研究

农户脱贫稳定性研究可为深度贫困地区巩固脱贫攻坚成果和乡村振兴有效衔接提供重要的理论依据。论文基于可持续生计视角进一步厘定了“农户脱贫稳定性”概念,从自然资本、物质资本、社会资本、人力资本和金融资本5个维度构建了农户脱贫稳定性评价指标体系,选取地处深度贫困地区的贵州省天柱县为研究区,测算1295户样本农户脱贫稳定性指数,基于不同方法共同识别影响因素并探究影响机理,提出构建稳定脱贫的长效机制。结果表明：① 研究区农户脱贫稳定性指数整体水平偏高,脱贫稳定性较强,但农户个体差异性显著,其中物质资本和自然资本维度的脱贫稳定性较高,金融资本其次,人力资本和社会资本维度的脱贫稳定性较低,返贫风险较大;② 农户脱贫稳定性类型主要以一般型或稳定型为主,脱贫稳定性综合指数中各类型占比分布从高到低大致呈“水滴”特征,有12.44%的样本农户处于临界型,返贫风险较大;③ 技能培训、外出务工人口占比、土地流转、转移性收入占比、到乡镇政府距离和到主干道距离是影响研究区农户脱贫稳定性的主要影响因素;④ 构建了能力提升、产业培育、激发动力、完善基础设施和拓展就业“五位一体”的深度贫困地区农户脱贫稳定性长效机制。     

贫困地区乡村经济韧性研究及其启示——以河北省阳原县为例

韧性是乡村地域系统的基本属性,对于推进乡村振兴与高质量发展具有重要支撑作用。截至2020年底,中国如期完成了新时代脱贫攻坚目标任务,然而,一些脱贫地区乡村发展水平不高,面临外界风险与挑战冲击时存在返贫风险,亟需提升乡村韧性。论文选取燕山—太行山集中连片贫困区的阳原县为研究对象,构建了“压力—状态—响应”模型(PSR),综合评价了14个乡镇、264个行政村的经济韧性。研究发现：① 阳原县乡村经济韧性平均值为0.13 (总分为1),水平偏低,乡村经济基础薄弱、发展质量不高;② 经济韧性水平较高的村庄主要分布于邻近交通干线地区,山地区和距离交通干线较远地区的乡村经济韧性水平较低;③ 农户家庭年人均纯收入偏低、人均耕地面积较少、乡村人均固定资产投资不足是经济韧性的关键制约因素。论文指出,应构建“农户个体—乡村集体—城镇中心体”的多级发展体系,强化乡村交通、通讯等基础设施建设和农户技能培训,壮大村集体经济,推进以重点镇、中心村、新型农村社区为载体的村镇化发展,实现村镇化与城市化“双轮驱动”。     

Addressing poverty and inequality in the rural economy from a global perspective

Recent decades have seen the rural areas of developing and emerging countries undergo significant structural changes. They are the source of several pertinent international concerns, including extreme poverty and hunger, and rising spatial and interpersonal disparities, challenges that national governments and the international community have made limited headway in alleviating to date. By analysing the range of rural development approaches implemented in recent decades, we develop a picture in which territorial approaches have become more mainstream. Since the turn of the century in particular they have gradually supplanted more traditional place-neutral approaches, which, we argue, have served to increase rural-urban disparities and exasperate the incidence of poverty in rural areas. Rural territorial development approaches, where able to mobilise sufficient participation and coordination between local stakeholders, civil society, and various multi-level actors, offer the most favourable means of gaining a better understanding of the many social, economic, institutional assets within a region. They can be harnessed to drive brands of regional development that are not only sustainable, but also more equitable and inclusive across different segments of the population and territories.