Remote sensing of soil moisture: implications for groundwater recharge

Remote sensing provides information on the land surface. Therefore, linkages must be established if these data are to be used in groundwater and recharge analyses. Keys to this process are the use of remote sensing techniques that provide information on soil moisture and water-balance models that tie these observations to the recharge. Microwave remote sensing techniques are used to map the spatial domain of surface soil moisture and to monitor its temporal dynamics, information that cannot be measured using other techniques. The physical basis of this approach is presented with examples of how microwave remote sensing is utilized in groundwater recharge and related studies. Electronic Publication     

GIS for the assessment of the groundwater recharge potential zone

Water resources in Taiwan are unevenly distributed in spatial and temporal domains. Effectively utilizing the water resources is an imperative task due to climate change. At present, groundwater contributes 34% of the total annual water supply and is an important fresh water resource. However, over-exploitation has decreased groundwater availability and has led to land subsidence. Assessing the potential zone of groundwater recharge is extremely important for the protection of water quality and the management of groundwater systems. The Chih-Pen Creek basin in eastern Taiwan is examined in this study to assess its groundwater resources potential. Remote sensing and the geographical information system (GIS) are used to integrate five contributing factors: lithology, land cover/land use, lineaments, drainage, and slope. The weights of factors contributing to the groundwater recharge are derived using aerial photos, geology maps, a land use database, and field verification. The resultant map of the groundwater potential zone demonstrates that the highest recharge potential area is located towards the downstream regions in the basin because of the high infiltration rates caused by gravelly sand and agricultural land use in these regions. In contrast, the least effective recharge potential area is in upstream regions due to the low infiltration of limestone.     

Mapping of hard rock aquifer system and artificial recharge zonation through remote sensing and GIS approach in parts of Perambalur District of Tamil Nadu,India

Mapping of hard rock aquifer system and artificial recharge zonation were carried out in an area of 325 km^2 in parts of the Perambalur District,Tamil Nadu,India.This district has been declared as one of the over-exploited regions in Tamil Nadu by the Central Groundwater Board.To raise the groundwater level,suitable recharge zones were identified and artificial recharge structures are suggested using geomatics technology in the present study.To this end,various thematic maps concerning lithology,soil,geomorphology,land use,land cover,slope,lineament,lineament density,drainage,drainage density and groundwater depth level were prepared.Fissile hornblende gneiss(244 km^2)covered most of the study area followed by charnockites(68 km^2).Structural hills and rocky pediments characterize the major geomorphological features in the targeted area,and are followed by deep moderated pediments.The area is mostly used as crop and fallow land,followed by scrub land and deciduous forest.In the study area,the slopes are predominantly very gentle(142 km^2)and nearly level(66 km^2)ones.Besides,Groundwater level data of 58 wells have been generated,in which the minimum and maximum depth were 3 and 28 m respectively.Integration under the GIS environment has been carried out using all the thematic layers to identify the groundwater prospect zone through the introduction of weight and rank methods.Integrated output performances were classified into very poor,poor,moderate,good and excellent categories.All these classes were further divided into two groups as suitable and non-suitable area for the selection of recharge sites.Hard rock fractures were mapped as lineaments from satellite images,and besides that,rose diagram was also generated to find out the trend of the fracture.Furthermore,fracture data of 146 numbers have been collected using Brunton compass to generate rose diagram and were correlated with the rose diagram derived from lineaments.The present study significantly brought up a few areas such as Ammapalayam,Melapuliyur,Senjeri and around Siruvachur for artificial recharge.     

盆地地下水年龄空间分布规律

地下水年龄蕴含了地下水循环与演化过程的信息,是研究盆地地下水循环规律的重要信息来源。利用实测示踪剂年龄校正地下水模型,是当前国际水文地质学研究的前沿与热点。在数值模拟计算中,地下水年龄有三种确定方法,分别是利用"活塞流"模型计算对流年龄、根据同位素浓度结合半衰期计算浓度模拟年龄和利用地下水年龄控制方程计算直接模拟年龄。利用地下水年龄控制方程计算的直接模拟年龄适合于从理论上分析盆地中的地下水年龄空间分布规律。研究发现,在各级次流动系统内,从补给区到排泄区,地下水年龄有整体上变老的趋势;盆地下游,地下水年龄在垂向上会发生突变,可作为识别不同级次流动系统的实用指标。研究还发现,驻点位置或者附近,地下水年龄存在一个偏大的峰值。这些规律可为利用地下水年龄校正盆地地下水模型提供理论指导。     

Mapping of hard rock aquifer system and artificial recharge zonation through remote sensing and GIS approach in parts of Perambalur District of Tamil Nadu,India

Mapping of hard rock aquifer system and artificial recharge zonation were carried out in an area of 325 km2 in parts of the Perambalur District, Tamil Nadu, India. This district has been declared as one of the over-exploited regions in Tamil Nadu by the Central Groundwater Board. To raise the groundwater level, suitable recharge zones were identified and artificial recharge structures are suggested using geomatics technology in the present study. To this end, various thematic maps concerning lithology, soil, geomorphology, land use, land cover, slope, lineament, lineament density, drainage, drainage density and groundwater depth level were prepared. Fissile hornblende gneiss (244 km2) covered most of the study area followed by charnockites (68 km2). Structural hills and rocky pediments characterize the major geomorphological features in the targeted area, and are followed by deep moderated pediments. The area is mostly used as crop and fallow land, followed by scrub land and deciduous forest. In the study area, the slopes are predominantly very gentle (142 km2) and nearly level (66 km2) ones. Besides, Groundwater level data of 58 wells have been generated, in which the minimum and maximum depth were 3 and 28 m respectively. Integration under the GIS environment has been carried out using all the thematic layers to identify the groundwater prospect zone through the introduction of weight and rank methods. Integrated output performances were classified into very poor, poor, moderate, good and excellent categories. All these classes were further divided into two groups as suitable and non-suitable area for the selection of recharge sites. Hard rock fractures were mapped as lineaments from satellite images, and besides that, rose diagram was also generated to find out the trend of the fracture. Furthermore, fracture data of 146 numbers have been collected using Brunton compass to generate rose diagram and were correlated with the rose diagram derived from lineaments. The present study significantly brought up a few areas such as Ammapalayam, Melapuliyur, Senjeri and around Siruvachur for artificial recharge.     

Recharge and groundwater models: an overview

Recharge is a fundamental component of groundwater systems, and in groundwater-modeling exercises recharge is either measured and specified or estimated during model calibration. The most appropriate way to represent recharge in a groundwater model depends upon both physical factors and study objectives. Where the water table is close to the land surface, as in humid climates or regions with low topographic relief, a constant-head boundary condition is used. Conversely, where the water table is relatively deep, as in drier climates or regions with high relief, a specified-flux boundary condition is used. In most modeling applications, mixed-type conditions are more effective, or a combination of the different types can be used. The relative distribution of recharge can be estimated from water-level data only, but flux observations must be incorporated in order to estimate rates of recharge. Flux measurements are based on either Darcian velocities (e.g., stream baseflow) or seepage velocities (e.g., groundwater age). In order to estimate the effective porosity independently, both types of flux measurements must be available. Recharge is often estimated more efficiently when automated inverse techniques are used. Other important applications are the delineation of areas contributing recharge to wells and the estimation of paleorecharge rates using carbon-14. Electronic Publication     

Assessing the potential for significant and episodic recharge in southwestern Australia using rainfall data

Agricultural practices in semi-arid parts of southwestern Australia have increased recharge and raised groundwater levels. As a result, land salinization has occurred. Managers aim to address the problem by reducing recharge, but it is not known whether all recharge is regular and seasonal or whether a substantial component is episodic (i.e. occurs in irregular pulses). Approaches that reduce regular recharge may not be effective at reducing recharge that is episodic. Water balances were used to assess the potential for recharge to be episodic at 53 sites throughout Western Australia. The results show that, for the conditions modeled, a substantial proportion of the recharge in drier parts of the agricultural areas occurred episodically, and that direct episodic recharge could be as important in some semi-arid areas as in arid regions. Therefore, mean annual rainfall is not a strong predictor of the ratio of episodic to total recharge at a site. The model indicates that in agricultural areas, most significant and episodic recharge events occurred over just a few days in winter months, when rainfall was dominated by frontal systems. However, substantial episodic recharge also resulted from large storms during the months of January, February, and March. The implication is that it will be difficult to reduce recharge substantially, and thus control salinity, as long as agriculture relies heavily on shallow-rooted winter-growing plants. Electronic Publication     

Mapping recharge from space: roadmap to meeting the grand challenge

Fields of diffuse recharge flux play pivotal roles in: (1) linking surface and subsurface hydrologic systems, (2) controlling the biogeochemistry of terrestrial systems, and (3) determining the sustainability of well withdrawals from aquifers. This hydrologic flux is intimately related to the distribution and functioning of vegetation cover and type. In turn, it also plays a significant role in the distribution of vegetation. Until now, recharge has been mostly estimated as residual of either surface or subsurface water balance. In situ instruments for measurement of this quantity are difficult to implement and maintain. Long-term and spatially explicit (mapped) monitoring of recharge flux have been elusive goals. A review is presented of the possible spaceborne and airborne remote sensing and data interpretation techniques that may address the grand challenge of recharge mapping on large scales. The approaches rely on microwave remote sensing in order to measure land surface states in the presence of atmosphere and vegetation cover that attenuate and disturb the signal as it travels from the surface to the sensor. The emphasis is on radar systems that also have beneficial ground spatial resolution characteristics. Finally, examples of two candidate space-borne systems are presented as feasible approaches to the required measurements.     

Identifying and quantifying urban recharge: a review

The sources of and pathways for groundwater recharge in urban areas are more numerous and complex than in rural environments. Buildings, roads, and other surface infrastructure combine with man-made drainage networks to change the pathways for precipitation. Some direct recharge is lost, but additional recharge can occur from storm drainage systems. Large amounts of water are imported into most cities for supply, distributed through underground pipes, and collected again in sewers or septic tanks. The leaks from these pipe networks often provide substantial recharge. Sources of recharge in urban areas are identified through piezometry, chemical signatures, and water balances. All three approaches have problems. Recharge is quantified either by individual components (direct recharge, water-mains leakage, septic tanks, etc.) or holistically. Working with individual components requires large amounts of data, much of which is uncertain and is likely to lead to large uncertainties in the final result. Recommended holistic approaches include the use of groundwater modelling and solute balances, where various types of data are integrated. Urban recharge remains an under-researched topic, with few high-quality case studies reported in the literature. Electronic Publication     

Estimating groundwater discharge into a lake through underwater springs by using GIS technologies

Estimating groundwater recharge in a freshwater body such as a deep lake is often a problem for hydrologists, since direct measurements are costly and difficult to implement. This study attempts to calculate the groundwater discharge in a lake using a simple water balance model, water level measurements, aerial photographs and GIS technologies. In particular, a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) for the lake has been developed, which in combination with GIS (Geographical Information System) software and water level fluctuations has provided the lake's monthly water storages. Additional hydrologic elements, including land and water uses, overland flow and evapotranspiration, have been estimated and incorporated in a water balance model which after extensive analysis have provided credible monthly values for the groundwater recharge in Lake Trichonis. This particular methodology can be widely applied in catchments with similar hydrologic regimes and can provide reliable, cost-efficient estimations of groundwater recharges into water bodies.Abbreviations GIS Geographical Information Systems - DTM Digital Terrain Model     

天津平原地面沉降条件下的深层地下水资源组成

根据天津平原地面沉降监测结果，采用水量均衡法，计算出深层地下水开采量中，浅层地下水越流补给量占38.2％，粘土性压密释水量占41．3％，弹性释水量占5．6％，侧向流入量占14．9％。在控制地面沉降的条件下，深层地下水持续利用的对策是调整开采三维布局，适度开发利用浅层地下水对深层地下水的越流补给。     

非均质含水层中地下水年龄数值模拟

地下水年龄数值模拟是近年来国际地下水领域的一个全新研究方向。在简单介绍地下水年龄数值模拟相关理论和方法基础上,通过一个简单算例模拟对比了稳定流条件下不同非均质含水层中的水流运动和年龄分布,探讨了夹层透水性的强弱对地下水年龄分布的影响。结果表明,在地下水系统保持补径排通量不变的前提下,弱透水夹层的存在对于特定区域地下水的深部循环和更新具有积极作用。同时,在模拟区域深部含水层的年龄分布时,不能忽略其弥散作用。地下水年龄模拟为研究区域尺度上的地下水循环和地下水资源可持续利用提供了一种新的途径。     

Clogging mechanisms and preventive measures in artificial recharge systems

Groundwater which occurs in fractured rock or porous aquifers or other geological weak zones such as faults and fractures is usually extracted via boreholes, hand wells or other sources such as springs.Water scarcity has become a severe problem due to many factors, such as an alarming increase in population and per capita water consumption, over exploitation of groundwater resources and abrupt global climatic change along with its related eco-environmental geological problems. In such situation, application of artificial recharge systems(e.g. surface recharge basin and deep injection well systems) can help to effectively manage and augment the unitization of groundwater resources. However, the clogging problem,which may be caused by a complex interdependent mechanisms of physical, chemical and biological has been a challenge for the efficacy and the implementation of recharge facilities. Clogging can reduce the permeability, recharge rate and longevity of recharge facilities and increase the operational and maintenance costs. Major influencing factors associated with the occurrence of clogging include the chemical composition of groundwater(both the recharge water and native groundwater), aquifer medium and microbial diversity, together with other environmental factors such as temperature, pressure, total dissolved solids, total soluble salts, pH, Eh, nutrients, gases, carbonates and others; these factors ultimately increase the piezometric head but reduce the permeability and infiltration rates of porous/seepage media.Pretreatment of recharge water can minimize the potential clogging. In the case of clogged wells,rehabilitation methods need to be deployed. In the meantime, there is an urgent needs to understand the basic causes and developmental processes/mechanisms of clogging in order to mitigate this problem. This paper reviews the major clogging mechanisms and their possible preventive measures and redevelopments in artificial recharge systems.     

北京市平原区地下水循环特征的同位素研究

同位素技术是研究区域地下水循环规律的主要手段之一。本文对平原区地下水进行了取样分析,运用同位素技术并结合水文地质条件,研究了北京市平原区地下水循环演化规律。运用^3H和^14C的测年技术确定了地下水年龄;利用D和18^O关系曲线探讨了地下水的起源;按照是否积极参加了现代水循环的原则将第四系地下水划分为浅层水和深层水;对浅层水和深层水的更新状况进行了研究。研究表明,浅层水广泛分布于北京平原区,径流条件好,更新快;深层水主要分布于永定河、潮白河冲洪积扇下部及冲洪积平原的深部地区,补给条件相对差,与现代大气降水联系弱,径流条件差,更新慢。     

Using groundwater levels to estimate recharge

Accurate estimation of groundwater recharge is extremely important for proper management of groundwater systems. Many different approaches exist for estimating recharge. This paper presents a review of methods that are based on groundwater-level data. The water-table fluctuation method may be the most widely used technique for estimating recharge; it requires knowledge of specific yield and changes in water levels over time. Advantages of this approach include its simplicity and an insensitivity to the mechanism by which water moves through the unsaturated zone. Uncertainty in estimates generated by this method relate to the limited accuracy with which specific yield can be determined and to the extent to which assumptions inherent in the method are valid. Other methods that use water levels (mostly based on the Darcy equation) are also described. The theory underlying the methods is explained. Examples from the literature are used to illustrate applications of the different methods. Electronic Publication     

Delineation of potential groundwater zones based on multicriteria decision making technique

Groundwater is the most prioritized water source in India and plays an indispensable role in India's economy. The groundwater potential mapping is key to the sustainable groundwater development and management. A hybrid methodology is applied to delineate potential groundwater zones based on remote sensing, geographical information systems(GIS) and analytic hierarchy process(AHP) as on multicriteria decision making. For the purpose of demonstrating field application, Chittar watershed, Tamilnadu, India is studied as an example. The important morphological characteristics considered in the study are lithology, geomorphology, lineament density, drainage density, slope, and Soil Conservation Service–Curve Number(SCS-CN). These six thematic layers are generated in a GIS platform. Based on intersecting the layers, AHP method, the values for adopting the pairwise comparison normalized weight and normalized subclasses weightage were given. The normalized subclass weightage is input into each layer subclass. Then, weighted linear combination method is used to add the data layers in GIS platform to generate groundwater potential Index(GWPI) map. The GWPI map is validated based on the net recharge computed from the differences of measured groundwater levels between the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon in the year 2018. The kappa statistics are used to measure level spatial consistency between the GWPI and net recharge map. The overall average spatial matching accuracy between the two data sets is 0.86, while the kappa coefficient for GWPI with net recharge, 0.78. The results show that in Chittar watershed about 870 km~2 area is divided into high potential zone(i.e. sum of very high and high potential zone), 667 km~2 area, as the moderate one and the rest 105 km~2 area, as the poor zone(i.e. sum of very poor and poor potential zone).     

Holistic approach of GIS based Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) and WetSpass models to evaluate groundwater potential in Gelana watershed of Ethiopia

Appropriate quantification and identification of the groundwater distribution in a hydrological basin may provide necessary information for effective management, planning and development of groundwater resources. Groundwater potential assessment and delineation in a highly heterogeneous environment with limited Spatiotemporal data derived from Gelana watershed of Abaya Chamo lake basin is performed, using integrated multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA), water and energy transfer between soil and plant and atmosphere under quasi-steady state (WetSpass) models. The outputs of the WetSpass model reveal a favorable structure of water balance in the basin studied, mainly using surface runoff. The simulated total flow and groundwater recharge are validated using river measurements and estimated baseflow at two gauging stations located in the study area, which yields a good agreement. The WetSpass model effectively integrates a water balance assessment in a geographical information system (GIS) environment. The WetSpass model is shown to be computationally reputable for such a remote complex setting as the African rift, with a correlation coefficient of 0.99 and 0.99 for total flow and baseflow at a significant level of p-value<0.05, respectively. The simulated annual water budget reveals that 77.22% of annual precipitation loses through evapotranspiration, of which 16.54% is lost via surface runoff while 6.24% is recharged to the groundwater. The calibrated groundwater recharge from the WetSpass model is then considered when determining the controlling factors of groundwater occurrence and formation, together with other multi-thematic layers such as lithology, geomorphology, lineament density and drainage density. The selected five thematic layers through MCDA are incorporated by employing the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) method to identify the relative dominance in groundwater potential zoning. The weighted factors in the AHP are procedurally aggregated, based on weighted linear combinations to provide the groundwater potential index. Based on the potential indexes, the area then is demarcated into low, moderate, and high groundwater potential zones (GWPZ). The identified GWPZs are finally examined using the existing groundwater inventory data (static water level and springs) in the region. About 70.7% of groundwater inventory points are coinciding with the delineated GWPZs. The weighting comparison shows that lithology, geomorphology, and groundwater recharge appear to be the dominant factors influence on the resources potential. The assessment of groundwater potential index values identify 45.88% as high, 39.38% moderate, and 14.73% as low groundwater potential zones. WetSpass model analysis is more preferable in the area like Gelana watershed when the topography is rugged, inaccessible and having limited gauging stations.     

Numerical studies on saltwater intrusion in a coastal aquifer in northwestern Germany

Saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers depends on the distribution of hydraulic properties, on the climate, and on human interference such as land reclamation. In order to analyze the key processes that control saltwater intrusion, a hypothetical steady-state salt distribution in a representative cross-section perpendicular to the coastline was calculated using a two-dimensional density-dependent solute transport model. The effects of changes in groundwater recharge, lowering of drainage levels, and a rising sea level on the shape and position of the freshwater/saltwater interface were modeled in separate simulations. The results show that the exchange of groundwater and surface water in the marsh areas is one of the key processes influencing saltwater intrusion. A rising sea level causes rapid progression of saltwater intrusion, whereas the drainage network compensates changes in groundwater recharge. The time scale of changes resulting from altered boundary conditions is on the order of decades and centuries, suggesting that the present-day salt distribution does not reflect a steady-state of equilibrium.     

Identification of suitable sites for groundwater recharge in Awaspi watershed using GIS and remote sensing techniques

Groundwater is a valuable natural resource for drinking, domestic, livestock use, and irrigation, especially in arid and semi-arid regions like the Garmiyan belt in Kurdistan region. The Awaspi watershed is located 50 km east of Kirkuk city, south Kurdistan, Iraq; and covers an area of 2146 km². The paper presents result of a study aimed at: (1) mapping and preparing thematic layers of factors that control groundwater recharge areas, and (2) determination of sites suitable for groundwater recharge. We used available data such as geological map, groundwater depth map, digital elevation model (DEM), Landsat 8 imagery, and tropical rainfall measuring mission (TRMM) data for this study. These data, supplemented by slope features, lithology, land use land cover, rainfall, groundwater depth, drainage density, landform, lineament density, elevation and topographic position index, were utilized to create thematic maps to identify suitable areas of groundwater recharge, using GIS and remote sensing techniques. Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was applied to weight, rank, and reclassify these maps in the ArcGIS 10.3 environment, to determine the suitable sites for groundwater recharge within the Awaspi watershed. Fifty-five percent of the total area of the watershed was found to be suitable for groundwater recharge; whereas 45% of the area was determined to have poor suitability for groundwater recharge, but can be used for surface water harvesting.     

Use of alternative conceptual models to assess the impact of a buried valley on groundwater vulnerability

A buried valley incised into a sequence of pre-Quaternary sediments is shown to seriously affect the vulnerability of groundwater. Often the existence of buried valleys is not known or is not described explicitly in a hydrogeological model. In the present study, two numerical groundwater models, representing two alternative conceptual models, were produced to help quantify the effect of the valley on groundwater vulnerability. One model included the buried valley and the other did not. Both models were subjected to calibration and were found to describe hydraulic head and river discharge equally well. Even though the two models showed similar calibration statistics; fluxes, travel paths and travel times were affected by the inclusion of the buried valley. The recharge area and the groundwater age of potential abstraction wells placed in the pre-Quaternary deep aquifers surrounding the buried valley were different for the two models, with significantly higher vulnerability when the valley was included in the model. Based on the results of the present study, it is concluded that a buried valley may not always be detectable when calibrating a wrong conceptual model. If reliable results should be obtained a good geological model has to be constructed.