Relationship between P- and S-wave velocities and geological properties of near-surface sediments of the continental slope of the Barents Sea

Seismic velocities ( V _p and V _s) of compressional (P-) and shear (S-) waves are important parameters for the characterization of marine sediments with respect to their sedimentological and geotechnical properties. P- and S-wave velocity data of near-surface marine sediments (upper 9 m) of the continental slope of the Barents Sea are analysed and correlated to sedimentological and geotechnical properties. The results show that the S-wave velocity is much more sensitive to changes in lithology and mechanical properties than the P-wave velocity, which is characterized by a narrow range of values. The correlation coefficients between S-wave velocity and silt and clay content, wet bulk density, porosity, water content and shear strength are higher than 0.5 while the correlation coefficients of P-wave velocity and the same parameters are always lower than 0.4. Although the relationship between V _s and clay content has been widely described, the data show that V _s is better correlated with silt content than with clay content for the sediments of the area investigated. However, they show different trends. While V _s increases with increasing clay content, it decreases with increasing silt content.     

A graphical model for haloanhydrite components and P-wave velocity: A case study of haloanhydrites in Amu Darya Basin

Wave velocities in haloanhydrites are difficult to determine and significantly depend on the mineralogy. We used petrophysical parameters to study the wave velocity in haloanhydrites in the Amur Darya Basin and constructed a template of the relation between haloanhydrite mineralogy (anhydrite, salt, mudstone, and pore water) and wave velocities. We used the relation between the P-wave moduli ratio and porosity as constraint and constructed a graphical model (petrophysical template) for the relation between wave velocity, mineral content and porosity. We tested the graphical model using rock core and well logging data.     

泥页岩岩石物理建模研究

泥页岩由于其复杂的岩石特性（主要是裂缝及有机质的存在）,目前还没有有效的岩石物理模型可以较为精确的模拟其性质.本文在自洽模型和微分等效介质模型的基础上,引入Berryman三维孔隙形态及Brown-Korringa固体替代技术,建立适用于富有机质泥页岩的新型岩石物理模型.在此基础上进行正演分析,讨论不同孔隙形态对于自洽模型的临界孔隙度以及岩石速度的影响.正演分析的结果表明即使将未知的混合岩石作为背景岩石,微分有效介质模型的引入使得固体相和流体相仍然不是对称的,临界孔隙度不一定要落在0.4到0.6之间.且不同的孔隙形状对于自洽模型的临界孔隙度以及岩石的速度具有明显的影响.此外,基于岩石物理模型,文章讨论了不同孔隙形态、不同泥质含量时有机质对于岩石弹性性质的影响.最后利用一口页岩气井对该模型进行验证,预测的纵横波速度与测井结果吻合的很好,证明了该模型对于富有机质泥页岩的适用性.     

A semi-empirical velocity-porosity-clay model for petrophysical interpretation of P- and S-velocities

We design a velocity–porosity model for sand-shale environments with the emphasis on its application to petrophysical interpretation of compressional and shear velocities. In order to achieve this objective, we extend the velocity–porosity model proposed by Krief et al., to account for the effect of clay content in sandstones, using the published laboratory experiments on rocks and well log data in a wide range of porosities and clay contents. The model of Krief et al. works well for clean compacted rocks. It assumes that compressional and shear velocities in a porous fluid-saturated rock obey Gassmann formulae with the Biot compliance coefficient. In order to use this model for clay-rich rocks, we assume that the bulk and shear moduli of the grain material, and the dependence of the compliance on porosity, are functions of the clay content. Statistical analysis of published laboratory data shows that the moduli of the matrix grain material are best defined by low Hashin–Shtrikman bounds. The parameters of the model include the bulk and shear moduli of the sand and clay mineral components as well as coefficients which define the dependence of the bulk and shear compliance on porosity and clay content. The constants of the model are determined by a multivariate non-linear regression fit for P- and S-velocities as functions of porosity and clay content using the data acquired in the area of interest. In order to demonstrate the potential application of the proposed model to petrophysical interpretation, we design an inversion procedure, which allows us to estimate porosity, saturation and/or clay content from compressional and shear velocities. Testing of the model on laboratory data and a set of well logs from Carnarvon Basin, Australia, shows good agreement between predictions and measurements. This simple velocity-porosity-clay semi-empirical model could be used for more reliable petrophysical interpretation of compressional and shear velocities obtained from well logs or surface seismic data.     

横观各向同性页岩岩石物理模型建立——以龙马溪组页岩为例

在龙马溪页岩微观物性特征分析的基础上,综合利用测井解释、微观测试分析资料,建立了一种适用于龙马溪页岩的横观各向同性岩石物理模型,该模型建模过程：将各向异性SCA和DEM模型联合模拟得到的黏土和干酪根混合物作为背景介质;采用SCA模型对脆性矿物混合物进行模拟,利用各向异性DEM将脆性矿物混合物添加到背景介质;进一步将空孔隙添加到页岩基质,并利用Brown-Korringa模型进行各向异性条件下的流体替换,从而得到横观各向同性页岩岩石物理模型.通过对四川盆地A井龙马溪页岩进行岩石物理建模分析,计算了孔隙纵横比、纵横波速、各向异性系数和弹性参数,检验了模型的准确性.研究结果表明：矿物颗粒和孔隙纵横比是影响模型精度的关键参数,黏土和干酪根颗粒纵横比为0.05,图像识别获得的脆性矿物颗粒纵横比主要分布于0.45~1.0（集中分布于0.5~0.85）,横波波速反演获得的孔隙纵横比主要分布于0.1~0.3（平均值约为0.22）;模型预测和实测纵波波速之间误差为-2.40%~2.21%（平均绝对误差仅1.20%）,预测和实测横波波速之间误差为-1.93%~1.42%（平均绝对误差仅0.64%）,证实了本文模型的准确性和精度.本文模型能够准确计算页岩5个独立的刚度系数,为页岩弹性参数、声波波速、各向异性和脆性分析提供了有效手段,也为后续地球物理和工程地质参数分析提供了重要依据.     

Ultrasonic elastic characteristics of five kinds of metamorphic deformed coals under room temperature and pressure conditions

The calibration of the elastic characteristics of deformed coals is essential for seismic inversion of such units, because the prediction of coal deformation is essential for both mining safety and methane production. Therefore, many samples of broken and mylonitic deformed coal were tested with ultrasonic waves in the laboratory. These samples came from four mining areas: the Huainan, Pingdingshan, Hebi and Jiaozuo coal mines, which present five different metamorphic ranks shown as cylinders striking across circular limits of steel. Under normal pressures and temperatures, ultrasonic P- and S-wave tests show that the velocities, quality factors, and elastic moduli of the deformed coals were greatly reduced compared with undeformed coals. Also, some correlation was found between the P- and S-wave velocities in the deformed coals. However, there is no evidence of linear correlations between velocity and density, velocity and quality factor, or the quality factors of P- and S-waves. Compared with the elastic characteristics of undeformed coals, such as P- and S-wave velocity ratios or Poisson’s ratio, those of deformed coals generally decrease and the P-wave quality factors are less than those of S-waves. Moreover, the analysis of the relationship between pore structure and elastic modulus shows a better correlation between the P- and S-wave velocities and effective porosity, pore volume and specific surface area. Also, there are similar relationships between the pore structure and the Young’s and shear moduli. However, there are no such correlations with other moduli. Correlations between these elastic moduli, pore structure, coal rank and density were not found for the various samples of deformed coals, which is consistent with only structural destruction occurring in the deformed coals with other physical properties remaining unchanged. The experimental results show that it is possible to predict the deformation of coals with multi-component seismic elastic inversion.     

横波速度预测方法

准确的横波测井速度是叠前地震反演和叠前地震属性分析的必要参数,然而实际生产中往往缺乏横波速度信息.采用经验公式往往精度有限,本文采用Biot-Gassmann低频速度模型,以及Pride公式建立起基质弹性模量与骨架弹性模量关系,证明了纵波速度大小随固结系数的增大而减小,因而可以通过迭代方式计算出合适的固结系数,进而得到横波速度大小.通过两个实例说明该方法能得到很高的预测精度.     

Determination of shale stiffness tensor from standard logs

A technique allowing inversion of the shale stiffness tensor from standard logging data: sonic velocities, density, porosity and clay content is developed. The inversion is based on the effective medium theory. The testing of the technique on laboratory measurements of the elastic wave velocities in shale samples shows that the inversion makes it possible to predict the elastic wave velocities V_P, V_S1 and V_S2 in any direction within an error of a few per cent. The technique has been applied for the stiffness tensor inversion along a well penetrating a shale formation of the Mississippian age altered by thin layers of limestone. It is demonstrated that the symmetry of a stiffness tensor inverted at the sonic frequency (2 kHz) is slightly orthorhombic and taking into account the experimental errors, can be related to the vertical transverse isotropy symmetry. For the productive interval of the shale formation, the Thomsen parameters ?, γ, and δ average, respectively, 0.32, 0.25 and 0.21, which indicate anelliptic behaviour of the velocities in this shale. The coefficients of anisotropy of this shale interval are around 24% and 20% for the compressional and shear waves, respectively. The values of the inverted velocities in the bedding plane for this interval are in good agreement with the laboratory measurements. The technique also allows inversion of the water saturation of the formation (Sw) and the inverted values are in agreement with the Sw values available for this formation. A Backus‐like upscaling of the inverted stiffness tensors is carried out for the lower and upper bounds of the frequency band used in the crosswell tomography (100 Hz and 500 Hz). These results can serve as an initial velocity model for the microearthquake location during hydrofracking of the shale formation.     

基于页岩岩石物理等效模型的地应力预测方法研究

地应力的精确预测是对页岩地层进行水平井钻井轨迹设计和压裂的基础.本文在分析页岩构造特征的基础上,提出了适用于页岩地层的岩石物理等效模型的建立流程,并以此为基础实现了最小水平地应力的有效预测.首先,通过分析页岩地层的矿物、孔隙、流体及各向异性特征,将其等效为具有垂直对称轴的横向各向同性介质,进行了页岩岩石物理等效模型的构建;然后建立了页岩地层纵横波速度经验公式,并将该经验公式与岩石物理等效模型均应用于实际页岩工区的横波速度预测中,二者对比表明,本文中建立的页岩气岩石物理等效模型具有更高的横波预测精度,验证了该模型的适用性;最后,利用该模型计算各弹性刚度张量,进而实现了页岩地层最小水平地应力的预测,与各向同性模型估测结果对比表明,该模型预测的最小水平地应力与地层瞬间闭合压力一致性更高,且储层位置更为明显,具有较高的实用性.     

岩石的等效孔隙纵横比反演及其应用

通过融合Gassmann方程和由微分等效介质理论建立的干岩石骨架模型--DEM解析模型,本文提出根据纵波(和横波)速度反演岩石等效孔隙纵横比进行储层孔隙结构评价和横波速度预测的方法.首先,利用Gassmann方程和DEM解析模型建立岩石的纵、横波速度与密度、孔隙度、饱和度和矿物组分等各参数之间的关系;其次,将岩石孔隙等效为具有单一纵横比的理想椭球孔,应用非线性全局寻优算法来寻找最佳的等效孔隙纵横比使得理论预测与实际测量的弹性模量之间的误差最小;最后,将反演得到的等效孔隙纵横比代入到Gassmann方程和DEM解析模型中构建横波速度.实验室和井孔测量数据应用表明,反演得到的等效孔隙纵横比可准确反映储层的孔隙结构,对于裂缝型储层如花岗岩,其孔隙纵横比通常小于0.025,而对于孔隙型储层如砂岩,其孔隙纵横比通常大于0.08.只利用纵波与同时利用纵、横波反演得到的孔隙纵横比结果几乎完全一致,而且由纵波构建的横波与实测横波吻合良好,说明本文提出的等效孔隙纵横比反演及其横波速度预测方法是有效的.     

Effective medium theory and multiple linear regression-based velocity estimation in syn-rift clastic sequence of the Krishna–Godavari basin,India

An inclusion model, based on the Kuster–Toksöz effective medium theory along with Gassmann theory, is tested to forward model velocities for fluid-saturated rocks. A simulated annealing algorithm, along with the inclusion model, effectively inverts measured compressional velocity (V_P) to achieve an effective pore aspect ratio at each depth in a depth variant manner, continuously along with depth. Early Cretaceous syn-rift clastic sediments at two different depth intervals from two wells [well A (2160–2274 m) and well B (5222–5303 m)], in the Krishna–Godavari basin, India, are used for this study. Shear velocity (V_S) estimated using modelled pore aspect ratio offers a high correlation coefficient (>0.95 for both the wells) with measured data. The modelled pore aspect ratio distribution suggests the decrease in pore aspect ratio for the deeper interval, mainly due to increased effective vertical stress. The pore aspect ratio analysis in relation to total porosity and volume of clay reveals that the clay volume has insignificant influence in shaping the pore geometry in the studied intervals. An approach based on multiple linear regression method effectively predicts velocity as a linear function of total porosity, the volume of clay and the modelled pore-space aspect ratio of the rock. We achieved a significant match between measured and predicted velocities. The correlation coefficients between measured and modelled velocities are considerably high (approximately 0.85 and 0.8, for V_P and V_S, respectively). This process indicates the possible influence of pore geometry along with total porosity and volume of clay on velocity.     

汶川地震破裂带断层岩纵波速度与孔隙度关系的实验研究

分布于地震破裂带上的断层岩具有高孔隙度的特征.该特点造成了其弹性波速度与结晶岩石和沉积岩存在明显的差异.确定断层岩的弹性波速度与孔隙度和矿物组成的关系对于利用地震资料探测深部断层和测井资料的解释至关重要.在10~600 MPa条件下,本文对地震断层岩的纵波波速（V_p）和总孔隙度（φ_t）进行了测量,并深入分析了V_p与孔隙度的关系.结果表明在10~600 MPa的压力范围内,V_p（p）随着压力的增高呈现对数增加,其增长率随着压力的上升而逐渐减小,遵从∂V_p（p）/∂p=a_v/p的变化规律.断层岩中的孔隙度随着压力的增高呈对数减小.与传统的认识不同,实验发现在压力高达600 MPa以上,大多数断层岩中仍然可以残留可观的孔隙量.分析显示V_p与总孔隙度及总粘土含量呈负线性相关.该发现有助于认识深部流体的活动通道特征,有助于理解断层带中存在大量粘土矿物、断层带内的物质可被大量带出、围陷波的形成等地质和地球物理现象.     

The bound weighted average method (BWAM) for predicting S-wave velocity

The shear-wave velocity is a very important parameter in oil and gas seismic exploration, and vital in prestack elastic-parameters inversion and seismic attribute analysis. However, shearing-velocity logging is seldom carried out because it is expensive. This paper presents a simple method for predicting S-wave velocity which covers the basic factors that influence seismic wave propagation velocity in rocks. The elastic modulus of a rock is expressed here as a weighted arithmetic average between Voigt and Reuss bounds, where the weighting factor, w, is a measurement of the geometric details of the pore space and mineral grains. The S-wave velocity can be estimated from w, which is derived from the P-wave modulus. The method is applied to process well-logging data for a carbonate reservoir in Sichuan Basin, and shows the predicted S-wave velocities agree well with the measured S-wave velocities.     

基于气体包裹体模型的低孔低渗储层声波速度研究

随着石油勘探工业的持续发展和技术水平的日益提高,低孔低渗油气藏已成为我国油气勘探开发的重要领域之一,但是该类油气藏的储层岩石物理关系复杂,对其评价也相对较难。本文针对中深层气藏低孔低渗储层评价存在的困难,采用修正的White气体包裹体模型开展岩石物理研究。首先对气体包裹体模型进行分析,得到纵横波速度的计算公式,进而理论计算并分析纵横波速度与孔隙度、饱和度、压力及温度参数的变化关系,最后结合岩心实验对理论计算结果进行了验证。研究结果表明基于气体包裹体模型的理论计算结果与实测数据吻合较好,可以较好地为低孔低渗复杂储层声波速度测量及解释提供技术支持。      

龙马溪组页岩微观结构、地震岩石物理特征与建模

龙马溪组页岩是目前国内页岩气勘探的主要层位之一.由于岩石物理实验结果具有区域性,龙马溪组页岩的岩石特征与其地震弹性性质的响应规律需要开展相关的实验和理论研究工作予以明确.本研究基于系统的微观结构观察(扫描电镜和CT成像技术)和岩石物理实验来分析龙马溪组页岩样品地震弹性性质的变化规律,并依据微观结构特征建立相应的地震岩石物理表征模型.研究结果表明,石英含量对龙马溪组页岩的孔隙度以及有机碳(TOC)含量具有一定的控制作用,TOC和黄铁矿主要赋存于孔隙中;岩石骨架组成亦受控于石英或粘土含量,在石英含量大于40%(对应粘土含量小于30%)时,以石英、粘土共同作为岩石骨架,而粘土含量大于30%时,则以粘土作为岩石的骨架.因此,岩石骨架组成矿物、TOC含量、孔隙度共同制约龙马溪组页岩的地震弹性性质,富有机质储层岩石通常表现出低泊松比、低阻抗和低杨氏模量的特征,但由于支撑矿物的转换,某些富有机质页岩亦可表现为高阻抗特征.粘土矿物的定向排列仍然是造成页岩样品表现出各向异性的主要原因,各向异性参数与粘土含量具有指数关系.基于龙马溪组页岩的岩性特征及微观结构特征,可以利用自洽模型(SCA)、微分等效模量模型(DEM)和Backus平均模型的有效组合较为准确地建立龙马溪组页岩的地震岩石物理模型,实验结果和测井数据验证了模型的准确性.研究结果可为龙马溪组页岩气储层的测井解释和地震"甜点"预测提供依据.     

水饱和裂纹对地壳岩样中地震波速及各向异性的影响

选择４种地壳岩石样品,经干燥或水饱和处理后在不同围压条件下测量了在其中传播的纵、横波的速度及其各向异性．在大气压条件下低孔隙度(＜１％岩样中,水饱和样品中的纵波速度明显地比干燥样品中的高,但横波速度的差别不大．因为在低孔隙度岩样中纵波速度对孔隙流体的反应比横波速度敏感,可以用泊松比的变化来反映随着围压的增加晶粒间流体对弹性波传播特性的影响．根据实验数据,按Ｏ’Ｃｏｎｎｅｌｌ模型分别计算了干燥和水饱和岩样中的裂纹密度,与通过实测体应变曲线得到的裂纹孔隙度十分吻合．利用横波的速度和偏振特性可以推断岩样中定向排列微裂纹的空间取向情况．研究表明,同时测量在岩样中传播的纵、横波的速度,通过Ｖｐ／Ｖｓ比值可以给出有关颗粒边界流体的证据,也可以估计岩样中的裂纹密度．     

从阵列声波测井波形处理地层纵、横波时差的新方法

阵列声波测井波形中包含丰富的地层纵、横波速度信息.如何从这些波形中提取出这些速度信息,得到比较准确的地层纵、横波时差是资料应用人员非常关心的问题.目前,最常用的纵、横时差处理方法是STC———慢度—时间相关法.该方法只有在波形的速度频散不严重时比较有效.而井内声波传播的基本特征是具有频散特征.利用Ma-trix pencil方法可以求出阵列声波测井波形的二维谱.借助于波形的二维谱,本文给出一种求地层的纵、横波时差的方法.本方法充分利用井内声波传播的规律,有效地减小了频散对纵、横波时差计算的影响,得到的纵、横波时差值精度比较高.     

Water retention effects on elastic properties of Opalinus shale

Shales play an important role in many engineering applications such as nuclear waste, CO₂ storage and oil or gas production. Shales are often utilized as an impermeable seal or an unconventional reservoir. For both situations, shales are often studied using seismic waves. Elastic properties of shales strongly depend on their hydration, which can lead to substantial structural changes. Thus, in order to explore shaly formations with seismic methods, it is necessary to understand the dependency of shale elastic properties on variations in hydration. In this work, we investigate structural changes in Opalinus shale at different hydration states using laboratory measurements and X-ray micro-computed tomography. We show that the shale swells with hydration and shrinks with drying with no visible damage. The pore space of the shale deforms, exhibiting a reduction in the total porosity with drying and an increase in the total porosity with hydration. We study the elastic properties of the shale at different hydration states using ultrasonic velocities measurements. The elastic moduli of the shale show substantial changes with variations in hydration, which cannot be explained with a single driving mechanism. We suggest that changes of the elastic moduli with variations in hydration are driven by multiple competing factors: (1) variations in total porosity, (2) substitution of pore-filling fluid, (3) change in stiffness of contacts between clay particles and (4) chemical hardening/softening of clay particles. We qualitatively and quantitatively analyse and discuss the influence of each of these factors on the elastic moduli. We conclude that depending on the microstructure and composition of a particular shale, some of the factors dominate over the others, resulting in different dependencies of the elastic moduli on hydration.     

Measuring wave propagation characteristics in artificial sand-clay mixtures

Ultrasonic compressional (V _p ) and shear (V _s ) velocities have been measured on artificial sand-clay mixtures. The measurements were carried out in a drained triaxial load cell using a pulse transition method. The measuring device was equiped with a waveform storage facility. The investigated mixtures consisted mainly of kaolinite and quartz sand. Some mixtures also contained Na-montmorillonite, illites or quartz-flour. The acoustic behaviour was observed during a pressure increase up to 72 MPa vertical and 36 MPa horizontal pressure. At a given pressure,V _p andV _s in pure sand turned out to be similar to those in pure kaolinite. As predicted by the sand-clay model of Marion (1990), a velocity maximum corresponds to a minimum in total porosity. This porosity minimum marks the transition from a clayey sand to a sandy clay. It is not only reflected in bothV _p andV _s , but also in the quality of the received pulse. The effective tension of the received signal during 20µs after the first arrival, was used as an indication for P-wave pulse attenuation. This apparent attenuation decreases with increasing clay content and increases with increasing porosity. It is shown that clay mineralogy does not measurably affect wave velocities in clayey sands.     

海洋含水合物沉积层的速度频散与衰减特征分析

随着水合物含量的增加,往往会引起纵、横波速度的增加,同时也会引起衰减的变化.针对含水合物沉积层的速度频散与衰减特征分析,有助于水合物含量的估计.本文以有效介质理论模型(EMT)为基础,研究了海洋未固结含水合物沉积层的纵、横波速度的非线性变化趋势.同时采用BISQ模型替代有效介质模型中的Gassmann方程,具体分析了全频带范围内海洋含水合物沉积层的速度频散与衰减特征.采用该模型,速度与衰减均随着水合物含量的增加而增加,且岩石孔隙度与泥质含量对衰减系数的影响较小.针对大洋钻探计划(ODP)164航次的实际数据,运用该模型方程计算采用声波测井数据(20kHz)与VSP数据(100Hz),分别获取了水合物稳定带的饱和度数据,平均在5%~7%之间,由于速度频散的影响,VSP估算结果要弱低于声波测井估算数据,均与实测保压取芯的甲烷含量数据、他人研究成果以及神经网络趋势预测结果均有着较好的一致性.对南海神狐海域三口钻位开展了水合物含量预测,与保压取芯结果有着较好的吻合关系.同时基于层剥离法提取该区域某地震测线BSR层的等效Q值,采用本文方法估算了该区域的等效天然气水合物含量15%~30%.数值模拟与实际应用结果表明:含水合物沉积层的速度频散与衰减特征均随着水合物含量的变化而变化,联合利用这一些变化特征,有助于天然气水合物含量的估计.