东天山红山Cu-Au矿床氧化带首次发现的副针绿矾巨晶及其多型针绿矾

一种艳丽的蓝紫色矿物巨晶在我国新疆哈密地区红山铜.金矿床氧化带中、上部大量出现,经详实的野外地质观察和室内测试,如X-射线单晶及粉晶衍射测定、湿法化学分析、热分析、穆斯堡尔谱和红外光谱测试等,确认其为一罕见硫酸盐矿物-副针绿矾(Paracoquimbite,Fe2(So4)3·9H2O),是继智利丘基卡马塔巨型宽岩铜矿区1935年报道后,在世界上的又一次发现,在我国尚属首次.该矿物晶体如此之硕大(单晶粒度可达8cm～12cm),远大于智利首次发现的晶体(1.95cm),在国内外和自然界亦堪称首例,与副针绿矾密切共生者为针绿矾,二者呈多型关系.本文副针绿矾湿法化学分析结果为(wt%):SO3 42.55,Fe2O3 28.19,H8O 28.72,CaO 0.02,MgO 0.01,AL2O3 0.03,Na2O 0.02,总计99.54,其XRD特征谱线为:4.61(100),8.89(83),3.38(67);针绿矾湿法化学分析结果为(wt%):SO,3 42.31,Fe2O3 28.61,H2O 28.98,MgO 0.01,Al2O30.01,总计99.92,其XRD特征谱线为:8.27(100),5.46(76),2.77(76).红外光谱分析判定了不同基团及同一种基团在不同结构环境下振动模式或频率的差别.穆斯堡尔谱分析确定了副针绿矾和针绿矾中铁的氧化态、配位数以及结构中存在共价键(霄键).其穆斯堡尔谱共有特征是四极矩分裂值较小,均由单一吸收峰组成.各种实验分析数据完全吻合,保证了副针绿矾和针绿矾研究的准确性和可靠性.在同一标本上连续切片,通过连续系统的电子探针分析,对针绿矾与副针绿矾互为多型的成因机理做了初步探讨.红山矿区氧化带中除与该矿物副针绿矾共生者外,尚有其它多种硫酸盐矿物亦为我国首次发现.目前上述诸多矿物已作为湿法冶铜及制酸工业的新型资源,副针绿矾巨大晶体的发现兼有一定的实用价值和收藏价值.     

东疆红山高硫型浅成低温Cu-Au矿床氧化带钾铁矾、板铁矾、副基铁矾的首次发现及其意义

新疆哈密红山高硫化物型浅成低温Cu-Au矿床的氧化带呈漏斗状产于原生硫化物矿体的上部,延深50～60m,以硫酸盐矿物为主。X射线粉晶衍射、湿法化学和差热分析研究表明,钾铁矾、板铁矾和副基铁矾3种硫酸盐矿物均系在中国首次发现。钾铁矾湿法化学分析为:H2O6.35%,SO349.72%,Na2O0.15%,Fe2O326.00%,K2O12.47%,FeO0.25%,SiO23.25%,不溶物0.85%,CaO0.11%,总计99.15%;XRD特征谱线为:4.40(100),4.26(70),6.58(47)。板铁矾湿法化学分析为H2O26.51%,SO349.91%,Na2O0.03%,Fe2O322.52%,MgO0.01%,CaO0.03%,总计99.01%;XRD特征谱线为:9.16(100),3.29(9),4.06(8)。副基铁矾湿法化学分析为H2O24.82%,SO338.53%,Al2O30.18%,Fe2O336.10%,MgO0.02%,CaO0.04%,总计99.69%;XRD特征谱线为:5.00(100),3.11(41),5.85(39)。热分析实验进一步验证了化学分析的可靠性,并对这些硫酸盐热反应机制作了解释。该类硫酸盐矿物已作为新型资源直接制酸用于湿法炼铜,具有选矿和环保上的巨大优势。对该类硫酸盐矿物的共生组合、形成次序、形成条件的深入研究还可用来反演古环境和古气候。     

叶绿矾矿物中的新超结构

叶绿矾是具有岛状基本结构的硫酸盐类矿物,对产于新疆东天山北部红山矿区硫化物矿床氧化带中的叶绿矾进行单晶衍射实验发现,该叶绿矾具有明显的超结构弱衍射点,利用包括弱衍射点在内的全部可观察点求得的超晶胞参数为:a=1.49441(7)nm,b=1.83429(9)nm,c=1.14507(6)nm,α=93.2390(10)°,β=112.0330(10)°,γ=98.2800(10)°,V=2.8583(2)nm3,空间群为P1,Z=3。去掉弱衍射点后利用强衍射点得到的最小亚晶胞参数是a=0.737121(4)nm,b=1.83079(11)nm,c=0.73106(4)nm,α=93.9250(10)°,β=102.7252(10)°,γ=98.9463(10)°,V=0.947321(2)nm3,空间群为P1,Z=1。超晶胞与亚晶胞相比体积增加了2倍,其b轴的方向和大小基本不变,a和c轴产生了差异。该叶绿矾的晶体化学式为Fe0.656Fe4(SO4)6(OH)2·19.4H2O,属高铁叶绿矾。结构中,部分Fe-O八面体和SO4四面体联合形成的复合链,并沿[102]方向分布,形成一种稳定的骨干结构;部分孤立Fe-O八面体,位于链间,阳离子相当于晶体化学式中A位置的离子,通常有缺失。链和孤立八面体的分布均平行(010)面网,分别构成链层和八面体层,并按2∶1的比例堆垛,结构单元之间全部由氢键相连。超结构产生的原因是电价补偿机制造成的孔道中Fe的位置分离和占位差异造成。     

东疆红山Cu-Au矿床氧化带硫酸盐矿物穆斯堡尔谱特征及其意义

穆斯堡尔谱对确定铁离子占位、核外环境及氧化态方面有着独特的优势。在红山铜金矿床氧化带硫酸盐矿物的XRD、TA、湿法化学分析和红外光谱测试的基础上,测定了板铁矾、针绿矾等8种硫酸盐矿物的室温57Fe穆斯堡尔谱,并根据常温下硫酸盐矿物穆斯堡尔谱参数和其晶体结构中Fe3+和Fe2+的占据位置对其谱峰进行了指派。结果表明本矿床氧化带硫酸盐矿物的穆斯堡尔谱的同质异能位移较小、四级矩分裂值分布范围较大、无磁超精细分裂等特征,且硫酸盐矿物结构中存在着共价键。通过与青海锡铁山铅锌矿氧化带硫酸盐矿物的穆斯堡尔谱相比较,两者在近地表风化及氧化过程中所处的物理化学条件基本相同,酸性和氧化性的环境为硫酸盐矿物的产生和保存提供了良好条件,但红山矿床更为干旱少雨,导致两者硫酸盐的穆斯堡尔谱参数略有不同。     

锡铁山石——一种高铁硫酸盐新矿物

锡铁山石(Xitieshanite),发现于青海省锡铁山铅锌矿床氧化带中。矿床地处柴达木盆地北缘,其气候极端干旱。这种气候条件,有利于矿床氧化带硫酸盐矿物的大量发育,锡铁山石仅仅是其中之一而已。与锡铁山石共生的矿物,除大量叶绿矾外,次要的尚有粒铁矾、针绿矾、黄铁钠矾、钎钠铁矾和水绿矾等。锡铁山石的集合体呈块状,亦常见晶形完好者。矿物结晶颗粒较大,一般大小为:     

西北三个硫化物矿床氧化带中纖钠铁矾的初步研究

前言纤鈉铁矾（Sideronatrite）,是一种并不常見的硫酸盐矿物,化学分子式为2Na₂O·Fe₂O₃·4SO₃·7H₂O。它在国内文献中还未曾报导过。在我们研究过的西北若干硫化物矿床氧化带中,发現有三个矿床氧化带产纤鈉鉄矾,其中两个矿床的纤鈉铁矾发育較好,含量很多。作者在“西北干旱地区多金属矿床氧化带研究”一文里,曾将纤鈉鉄矾与叶绿矾这两种矿物混为一談,在此特作修正。     

东天山红山高硫型浅成低温铜-金矿床：中生代成矿与新生代氧化的K-Ar、Ar-Ar年代学证据及其古构造和古气候意义

红山铜-金矿床位于新疆吐哈盆地南缘大南湖-突苏泉晚古生代岛弧带北段的中生代上叠火山盆地中,产于卡拉塔格铜-金矿带上,是新疆近年新发现的具大型远景的高硫化物型浅成低温热液铜-金矿床。铜-金成矿作用与中生代的火山活动及次火山岩侵入相关。该矿床处于东天山极端干旱荒漠地带,是东天山最炎热的地区之一,最高温度达到60℃,降水量平均只有34.1mm/y。干旱少雨和极大的蒸发作用造成氧化带极其发育,厚达50m~60m,由一系列复杂罕见的硫酸盐矿物组成。通过对红山铜-金矿床中石英闪长岩—黑云母花岗岩—二长花岗岩中角闪石、黑云母的K-Ar年龄测定,其年龄分别为296.5±6.7Ma、232.0±3.5Ma和217.10±6.4Ma,其中黑云母花岗岩的黑云母Ar-Ar年龄为238.0±2.4Ma,相当于晚石炭世末-三叠纪。并且由于含矿火山岩含有花岗岩的角砾,表明与成矿有关的岩浆活动晚于上述花岗岩,应为中生代的产物。区域上,三亚、白石泉花岗岩、红柳构花岗岩年龄以及白山钼矿的辉钼矿Re-Os年龄均为三叠纪,表明东天山地区存在中生代成岩成矿事件。对红山矿区氧化带三种含钾硫酸盐矿物进行了K-Ar年龄测试,结果显示现今地表以下1m的绿钾铁矾K-Ar年龄为56.0±4.0Ma,地表以下1.5m的高铁叶绿矾的K-Ar年龄为8.6±1.1Ma,地表以下10m的绿钾铁矾K-Ar年龄为14.7±1.7Ma,地表以下14m的斜钾铁矾K-Ar年龄为4.1±0.4Ma。因此推测红山矿床氧化带不同硫酸盐矿物的表生年龄分布在60~3.7Ma之间。不同类型矿床的氧化带年龄亦表明氧化带氧化作用主要发生在新生代。所获得的氧化带年龄与印度—亚洲大陆碰撞及随后青藏高原的多期幕式隆升时限具有较好的对应关系,可能是青藏高原碰撞隆升远程效应的表现和记录。同时,本研究初步提出使用不同种类硫酸盐矿物作为气候变化指标的可能,对于新生代以来PETM等事件研究具有借鉴意义。     

斑岩型铜矿床地球化学勘查中岩石化学指标

依据江西城门山和内蒙古乌努格吐山2个斑岩型铜矿床试验资料,探讨了用于斑岩型铜矿床勘查的岩石化学指标。结果表明,常量化学组分MgO、CaO和Na2O等在斑岩型矿化体中的含量显著低于其在中酸性岩中的丰度值,w(Na2O)/w(K2O)、w(CaO)/w( MgO)值随Cu矿化强度增强有规律地变化,可以有效指示斑岩型矿化体的存在及其矿化强度。此项成果丰富了地球化学勘查指标。     

锌赤铁矾和锌叶绿矾——两种新的硫酸盐变种矿物

前言作者等于1956-1957年在柴达木北緣某鉛鋅矿床氧化带中找到若干含鋅很高的硫酸盐矿物。其中二种,經过1962-63年的室內工作肯定为鋅赤铁矾（Zincobotryogen）和鋅叶綠矾（Zincocopiapite）。前者是赤铁矾族的新变种,后者是叶綠矾族的新变种。它們在成分上接近于这两族矿物的鋅的极端組分,即鋅赤铁矾的理論分子式为ZnFe³⁺（SO₄）₂（OH）·7H₂O,鋅叶綠矾的理論分子式为ZnFe₄³⁺（SO₄）₆（OH）₂·2OH₂O。工作中曾利用了叶韵琴同志采集的部分标本。     

三门峡-宝丰控煤逆冲断裂构造带地球化学分析

三门峡-宝丰控煤逆冲断裂构造带是华北板块南部NW向延展的巨型逆冲断裂构造带的一部分.构造地球化学分析表明:从外围原岩到断裂带中心,w(Fe2O3)逐渐增大,w(FeO)逐渐减小,说明逆冲断裂构造带经历了封闭性还原环境系统到相对开放性氧化环境系统的变化过程;各种化学成分的质量分数(SiO2、Al2O3、Fe2O3、MgO、CaO、FeO、灼失量以及TiO2、K2O、Na2O等)呈现有规律的递增、递减或峰值变化,说明逆冲断裂构造带是挤压应力作用下形成的压性断裂,而且处于演化阶段的晚期;动热变质强度在南、北两支逆冲断裂带存在差异:南支强烈,导致新生应力矿物的形成,为断裂的远距离相对逆冲运动增添了塑性润滑层;北支相对较弱,新生应力矿物少.     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Pebbles,Shapes, and Equilibria

The shape of sedimentary particles may carry important information on their history. Current approaches to shape classification (e.g. the Zingg or the Sneed and Folk system) rely on shape indices derived from the measurement of the three principal axes of the approximating tri-axial ellipsoid. While these systems have undoubtedly proved to be useful tools, their application inevitably requires tedious and ambiguous measurements, also classification involves the introduction of arbitrarily chosen constants. Here we propose an alternative classification system based on the (integer) number of static equilibria. The latter are points of the surface where the pebble is at rest on a horizontal, frictionless support. As opposed to the Zingg system, our method relies on counting rather than measuring. We show that equilibria typically exist on two well-separated (micro and macro) scales. Equilibria can be readily counted by simple hand experiments, i.e. the new classification scheme is practically applicable. Based on statistical results from two different locations we demonstrate that pebbles are well mixed with respect to the new classes, i.e. the new classification is reliable and stable in that sense. We also show that the Zingg statistics can be extracted from the new statistics; however, substantial additional information is also available. From the practical point of view, E-classification is substantially faster than the Zingg method.