具有Horton及Dunne机制的径流模型在VIC模型中的应用

地表径流主要由蓄满(Dunne)和超海产流(Horton)机制产生；土壤性质的空间变异性、前期土壤水、地形及防水的空间变异性导致不同的径流机制。在研究区域或模型网格内，蓄满产流及超渗产流可能同时出现，缺乏考虑任何一种机制以及土壤性质的次网格空间变串可能导致地表径流的过高或过低估计，从而影响土壤水的计算。利用Philip入渗公式用于时间压缩逼近(TCA)给出了一种径流参数化方法，该方法可以动态实现模型网格中的Horton及Dunne产流机理，它考虑了土壤空间变异性对Horton和Dunne径流的影响。该径流模型应用到基于水原理的陆面过程模型VIC，在淮河流域及美国宾西法尼亚州的一个流域进行了测试，结果表明：新的参数化方法对地表径流和土壤水分含量的分配起着重要作用，对于改进径流和土壤水的模拟有重要意义。     

基于降水气候强迫的一种地表径流估计方法

文中从地表水分平衡的物理机制出发 ,引进降水概率统计分布理论 ,推导出一种由降水气候强迫形成的次网格尺度非均匀径流率计算方法。应用于mosaic方案 ,可进一步计算区域平均径流及产流和汇流。试验证明 ,对于不同物理性质的地表而言 ,由于其土壤入渗能力的差异 ,相同降水气候强迫所能生成的径流量及其相对比值是不同的 ,例如干旱区与湿润区就有很大差异。同时 ,不同空间分布概率的降水量 ,不同站点的地表性质、土壤水力学条件等物理因素的千变万化 ,可使径流特征的空间分布具有很大变异性。因上述各种因素的综合影响 ,由降水气候强迫所形成的地表径流具有特定的非均匀分布是必然的。文中用实测资料验证了其可靠性与可行性     

蓄满-超渗兼容模型与神经网络模型的应用对比研究

利用鲇鱼山水库1975-1999年的小时降雨、蒸发和入库洪水资料,对建立的蓄满一超渗兼容模型与人工神经网络模型参数进行了率定和检验。分析结果表明,整体上两个模型的率定和检验结果都在评定精度以内,合格率分别为72．22％与83．33％,具有一定的可靠性与预测性。蓄满-超渗兼容模型在整体流量相对误差上要优于神经网络模型;在单场洪水过程及洪峰误差与峰现时差上,神经网络模型模拟得更准确。因此,蓄满-超渗兼容模型较神经网络模型更具有水文基础及物理意义,并且可以作中长期预报。     

非均匀地表条件下区域平均径流率的一种参数化方法及其模拟试验

从陆面水文过程的物理机制出发，引进概率统计分布理论，推导出一种由非均匀土壤含水量及降水气候强迫所形成的次网格尺度非均匀径流率的解析表达式，从而将通常的次网格尺度地表径流的参数化方案（mosaic方法）改进为考虑网格区整体非均匀性的统计-动力参数化方案。文中用仿真模拟资料验证了该方案的可靠性与可行性，并作数值试验。结果表明，该方案切实可行。     

陆面模式SSiB耦合TOPMODEL对流域水文模拟影响的数值试验

为了检验陆面模式SSiB耦合TOPMODEL模型对流域水量平衡模拟结果的影响,用原始SSiB与TOPMODEL按饱和区和非饱和区两种方案耦合的耦合模型(下称SSiBT)进行长江下游青弋江流域水文的数值试验,通过耦合模型与原始SSiB模式模拟结果的比较,并利用流域实测逐日流量和水量平衡资料,揭示了流域水文模拟结果对SSiB耦合TOPMODEL的响应和原因.结果表明:(1)与原始SSiB的模拟结果相比,SSiBT增加了土壤湿度的模拟结果和各层土壤湿度之间的差异,流域蒸散发增加而总径流减小.(2)原始SSiB不能准确地将径流在地表径流和基流之间分配,对于较小的土壤饱和导水率,原始SSiB产生过多的地表径流和洪峰流量;对于较大的土壤饱和导水率又产生过多的基流和明显偏小的洪峰流量.(3)即使土壤饱和导水率大到不会产生超渗产流,由于饱和区的存在,SSiBT在洪水期间也能产生足够大的地表径流,从而形成洪峰流量.由于考虑了地形引起的土壤湿度空间非均匀形成的饱和区产流,SSiBT改善了雨季逐日流量的模拟结果.     

陆面水文过程研究进展

在简单介绍陆面过程模式和水文模型发展的基础上,阐述了陆面水文过程包括的各种物理过程,介绍了陆面水文模式研究的发展现状,并对国内外进展作了总结。重点介绍了目前国内外用于同气候模式耦合的陆面水文模型,指出了陆面水文过程研究以及与大气模式耦合过程中存在的问题,讨论了陆面水文过程研究的发展方向：应在加强蓄满和超渗两种产流机制兼容的混合产流模型及融雪径流模型的研究的基础上,改进传统水文模型,发展基于传统水文模型的大尺度陆面过程水文模型。     

降水气候强迫下非均匀地表区域平均径流的一种参数化方案

将任一中尺度区域的平均瞬间径流率考虑为区域平均降水量和地表土壤层水分渗透垦的余项.根据降水量在地理空间上分布的实测资料拟合其空间概率密度函数(PDF),并结合土壤入渗物理过程的数学描述及其经验公式,精确估计出地表土壤渗透率及其空间分布,由此建立区域地表径流率的统计-动力学估计方案.换言之,区域内地表产流率可视为区域平均降水量与区域平均的土壤下渗量之差值,而区域内土壤的平均下渗量又町分为非饱和区和饱和区两部分的下渗量来分别计算.就陆面水分循环的物理过程而言,地表入渗现象是在一定的下垫面特性基础上,由一定的水分供应源而形成的.根据大气降水向地表层输送水分的物理过程,在满足植被表层覆盖需水(截流水)和地表层土壤人渗水基础上,多余的降水量才会形成地表径流.凶此,推求地表产流率的主要关键在于地表土壤层需水量.为此奉文根据土壤水分通量方程推导出水分入渗公式.又从描述土壤水分和降水的空间PDF出发,推导出非均匀土壤含水量及降水气候强迫所形成的次网格尺度区域平均径流率计算公式.利用长江三角洲地区1996年降水量和土壤特性等实测资料建立区域平均地表径流率的估计公式,并对其影响凶素进行敏感性试验.结果表明,该方法与用Mosaic方法计算的区域径流率(或产流率)结果十分接近.由此可见,该文提出的降水气候强迫下非均匀地表区域平均径流的这种统计-动力参数化方案,具有相当的可靠性与可行性.     

论中尺度运动对大尺度模式网格平均的次网格垂直通量的影响

较系统地阐述了中尺度运动对大尺度模式网格平均的次网格通量的影响方式和作用机制 ,提出了在大尺度模式中参数化次网格中尺度通量和地表次网格通量中尺度加强的思想方法 ,初步分析了这些参数化方法的缺陷和局限性 ,对几个在参数化中尺度通量和地表次网格通量中尺度加强时应重点考虑的关键因子提出了建议。最后 ,讨论了参数化非均匀大气的网格平均的次网格通量的一些新的想法及相关问题     

陆面过程模式CLASS径流模拟的改进和应用

针对陆面过程模式CLASS(Canadian Land Surface Scheme)产流模拟方面的不足,提出考虑壤中流产流机制的产流模拟方案。利用淮河流域能量和水分循环试验(HUBEX)资料,在史灌河流域对改进前后的模型进行了对比试验。结果表明,产流模拟改进方案大大提高了CLASS的径流模拟能力,同时改善了模式对土壤含水量的模拟。     

一个用于气候模式的简单冻土过程参数化方案的建立和检验

在NCAR／LSM的基础上，发展了一个简单的冻土过程参数化方案，并使用苏联6个站的水气象观测资料考察了耦合了新方案模式的气候效应。在新方案中，加入了对含冰量的求解和在相变过程中的能量变化;并使用Johanson的方案替代了模式中原有的土壤导热率的参数化方案，考虑了含冰量对土壤水热性质的影响。原模式和改进后模式的模拟结果的比较得到，冻土过程方案能够合理的模拟土壤列中的能量收支及水热性质随含冰量的变化。随着入渗的减少和径流的增加，春季的土壤湿度减小。因此，热通量的分配和土壤温度也产生了相应的变化。     

Implementation of a Surface Runoff Model with Horton and Dunne Mechanisms into the Regional Climate Model RegCM_NCC

A surface runoff parameterization scheme that dynamically represents both Horton and Dunne runoff generation mechanisms within a model grid cell together with a consideration of the subgrid-scaie soil heterogeneity, is implemented into the National Climate Center regional climate model （RegCM_NCC）. The effects of the modified surface runoff scheme on RegCMANCC performance are tested with an abnormal heavy rainfall process which occurred in summer 1998. Simulated results show that the model with the original surface runoff scheme （noted as CTL） basically captures the spatial pattern of precipitation, circulation and land surface variables, but generally overestimates rainfall compared to observations. The model with the new surface runoff scheme （noted as NRM） reasonably reproduces the distribution pattern of various variables and effectively diminishes the excessive precipitation in the CTL. The processes involved in the improvement of NRM-simulated rainfall may be as follows： with the new surface runoff scheme, simulated surface runoff is larger, soil moisture and evaporation （latent heat flux） are decreased, the available water into the atmosphere is decreased; correspondingly, the atmosphere is drier and rainfall is decreased through various processes. Therefore, the implementation of the new runoff scheme into the RegCMANCC has a significant effect on results at not only the land surface, but also the overlying atmosphere.     

Sensitivity of a GCM simulation to subgrid infiltration and surface runoff

A subgrid parameterization of infiltration and surface runoff was evaluated using a land surface model coupled to an atmospheric general circulation model. Averaged over 5 year simulations, the subgrid parameterization resulted in significantly less infiltration of water into the soil compared to a simulation without subgrid hydrologic processes. As a result, the soils were drier, latent heat flux decreased, and surface air temperature increased. These results are consistent with other studies of subgrid hydrologic parameterizations, which also resulted in drier soils, decreased latent heat flux, and warmer surface temperatures. Several river basins were studied in detail. In the Amazon and Lena basins, the subgrid parameterization resulted in better annual runoff compared to observed annual river flow; surface air temperature was unchanged in the Amazon and better, compared to observations, in the Lena. In the Ob, Yenisey, and Amur basins, the subgrid parameterization resulted in too much annual runoff; July surface air temperature was unchanged or worse (Amur). Annual runoff for the Mississippi basin was better with the subgrid parameterization, but July surface air temperature was worse. These results suggest the utility of subgrid hydrologic parameterizations vary among river basins depending on the relative importance of Horton and Dunne runoff and the geologic factors affecting runoff generation.     

一个水文模型与区域气候模式耦合的数值模拟研究(英)

在陆面过程方案中考虑精细的水文模型有助于改善对区域水文及气候的模拟。建立了一个考虑降水及入渗空间非均匀性的水文模型,并将其并入陆面过程方案BATS中。通过区域气候模式耦合模拟试验,得到如下主要结论:陆面水文的模拟对降水及入渗空间非均匀性的考虑非常敏感:考虑入渗非均匀性后,提高了径流系数,这与湿润地区水分平衡的观测结果更一致;入渗非均匀参数化方案的引入对区域水文及气候模拟的影响比降水非均匀参数化方案的引入要大:不透水面积在区域中的考虑所揭示的特征与我国北方干旱化趋势是一致的。     

Numerical Simulation and Evaluation of a New Hydrological Model Coupled with GRAPES

Hydrological processes exert enormous influences on the land surface water and energy balance, and have a close relationship with human society. We have developed a new hydrological runoff parameterization called XXT to improve the performance of a coupled land surface-atmosphere modeling system. The XXT parameterization, which is based upon the Xinanjiang hydrological model and TOPMODEL, includes an optimized function of runoff calculation with a new soil moisture storage capacity distribution curve(SMSCC). We then couple XXT with the Global/Regional Assimilation Prediction System (GRAPES) and compare it to GRAPES coupled with a simple water balance model (SWB).For the model evaluation and comparison, we perform 72-h online simulations using GRAPES-XXT and GRAPES-SWB during two torrential events in August 2007 and July 2008, respectively. The results show that GRAPES can reproduce the rainfall distribution and intensity fairly well in both cases. Differences in the representation of feedback processes between surface hydrology and the atmosphere result in differences in the distributions and amounts of precipitation simulated by GRAPES-XXT and GRAPES-SWB. The runoff simulations are greatly improved by the use of XXT in place of SWB, particularly with respect to the distribution and amount of runoff. The average runoff depth is nearly doubled in the rainbelt area, and unreasonable runoff distributions simulated by GRAPES-SWB are made more realistic by the introduction of XXT. Differences in surface soil moisture between GRAPES-XXT and GRAPES-SWB show that the XXT model changes infiltration and increases surface runoff. We also evaluate river flood discharge in the Yishu River basin. The peak values of flood discharge calculated from the output of GRAPES-XXT agree more closely with observations than those calculated from the output of GRAPES-SWB.     

Incorporating groundwater dynamics and surface/subsurface runoff mechanisms in regional climate modeling over river basins in China

To improve the capability of numerical modeling of climate-groundwater interactions, a groundwater component and new surface/subsurface runoff schemes were incorporated into the regional climate model RegCM3, renamed RegCM3_Hydro. 20－year simulations from both models were used to investigate the effects of groundwater dynamics and surface/subsurface runoff parameterizations on regional climate over seven river basins in China. A comparison of results shows that RegCM3_Hydro reduced the positive biases of annual and summer (June, July, August) precipitation over six river basins, while it slightly increased the bias over the Huaihe River Basin in eastern China. RegCM3_Hydro also reduced the cold bias of surface air temperature from RegCM3 across years, especially for the Haihe and the Huaihe river basins, with significant bias reductions of 0.80C and 0.88C, respectively. The spatial distribution and seasonal variations of water table depth were also well captured. With the new surface and subsurface runoff schemes, RegCM3_Hydro increased annual surface runoff by 0.11－0.62 mm d－1 over the seven basins. Though previous studies found that incorporating a groundwater component tends to increase soil moisture due to the consideration of upward groundwater recharge, our present work shows that the modified runoff schemes cause less infiltration, which outweigh the recharge from groundwater and result in drier soil, and consequently cause less latent heat and more sensible heat over most of the basins.     

Systematic Hydrological Evaluation of the Noah-MP Land Surface Model over China

We evaluate water budget components—namely, soil moisture, runoff, evapotranspiration, and terrestrial water storage (TWS)—simulated by the Noah land surface model with multi-parameterization options (Noah-MP) in China, a large geographic domain challenging for hydrological modeling due to poor observational data and a lack of one single parameterization that can fit for complex hydrological processes. By comparing the model simulations with multi-source reference data, we show that Noah-MP can generally reproduce the overall spatiotemporal patterns of runoff and evapotranspiration over six major river basins, with the annual correlation coefficients generally greater than 0.8 and the Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient exceeding 0.5. Among the six basins evaluated, the best model performance is seen over the Huaihe River basin. The temporal trend of the modeled TWS anomalies agrees well with GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) observations, capturing major flood and drought events in different basins. Experiments with 12 selected physical parameterization options show that the runoff parameterization has a stronger impact on the simulated soil moisture–runoff–evapotranspiration relationships than the soil moisture factor for stomatal resistance schemes, a result consistent with previous studies. Overall, Noah-MP driven by GLDAS forcing simulates the hydrological variables well, except for the Songliao basin in northeastern China, likely because this is a transitional region with extensive freeze–thaw activity, while representations of human activities may also help improve the model performance.