Combination of double couple and non-double couple events during the Van,Turkey, 2011 earthquake sequence

A combination of double couple (DC) and non-double couple (non-DC) earthquakes hit Eastern Turkey, in the vicinity of Lake Van, in October–November 2011. Teleseismic waveform inversion was used to find the best fitting double couple and deviatoric moment tensors on four large and medium sized events of this sequence. The aftershocks of the Mw = 7.1, 2011/10/23:10:41 earthquake built a NE–SW aftershock zone where the Mw = 5.7, 2011/10/25 aftershock was located. The Mw = 6.0, 2011/10/23:20:45 event was located around the terminal section of the Mw = 7.1 aftershock zone which might be triggered by this event (aftershocks of this event propagated from W to E to build a W–E aftershock zone where the Mw = 5.7, 2011/11/09 event was located). For these events the calculated best fitting grid search parameters are not very different from GCMT results, but DC components, after deviatoric moment tensor inversion, represent much more difference with GCMT and grid search. The important feature of deviatoric moment tensor inversion is the existence of a notable compensated linear vector dipole (CLVD) component on the Mw = 5.7, 2011/10/25:14:55 and Mw = 5.7, 2011/11/09:19:23 aftershocks. According to the regional seismotectonics, these CLVD components could be related to crustal rheology and volcanic activities. Based on the results, the existence of a cylindrical aftershock distribution could be taken as an indication of induced seismic activity on complex-ring structures resulted from magma or water–magma injection. However, the existence of Karst like structures suggests that the CLVD components may be under the influence of high-pressure water or gas injection rather than magma.     

The application of stepwise discriminant analysis to geochemical data from the host rocks of the Sullivan Pb-Zn-Ag deposit, Kimberley, B.C., Canada

The Sullivan Pb-Zn-Ag massive sulphide deposit in southeastern British Columbia occurs within middle Proterozoic argillite, siltstone and quartz wacke of the Purcell Group. Rock samples were collected from the hangingwall and footwall of the eastern section of the mine and from outcrop up to 50 km from the Sullivan deposit. The samples were analyzed for Cu, Pb, Zn, S, Mn, Ba, Fe, K, Ca, Na and specific conductance. A stepwise discriminant analysis applied to the analytical data determined the group of variables that differentiate between hangingwall, footwall and outcrop or “Background” samples. Hangingwall and footwall rock samples were most effectively discriminated from “background” rock samples on the basis of specific conductance with Cu, Pb, S, Na, and Ba selected as less efficient discriminators. The variables that discriminate hangingwall from footwall rock samples are Cu, Zn and S. The selection of the discriminating variables in each case can be explained in terms of the chemical changes that occur as a result of host rock alteration and sulphide deposition during the mineralizing event at the Sullivan deposit.Stepwise discriminant analysis was used to reduce a number of potential pathfinder variables to an optimum group of pathfinder variables. These optimum pathfinders represent the variables that most effectively differentiate the host rocks of the Sullivan deposit from rocks outside of the mineralized zone that apparently do not contain massive sulphide mineralization.     

Monitoring the performance of rock reinforcement

A rock mechanics program has been developed and implemented in order to achieve a safe and economical room and pillar extraction of the shallow dipping orebodies at the McArthur River Mine in Australia. Three closely spaced tabular orebodies have been targeted for extraction over the life of the mine and due to economics the lowermost number 2 orebody is being mined first. This paper formulates the calculation of the 2 Orebody hangingwall spans and the appropriate rock reinforcement design for the long-term stability of the room and pillar excavations. The field trials suggested that a rock beam was formed within the hangingwall of the room and pillar operations, arresting any vertical movement of the roof. The results indicated that the weight of the beam is transferred to the pillars via an arching process and there is no need for deep-anchored reinforcement.     

胶东新城金矿矿床地质特征及开采评价

位于焦家断裂带的新城金矿床矿体主要赋存于主裂面(断层泥)下盘的黄铁绢英岩化碎裂岩带和黄铁绢英岩化花岗闪长质碎裂岩带内。根据勘探资料和测试数据对矿床内Ⅰ号和Ⅴ号主要矿体的赋存特征进行分析, 并结合矿区水文和环境特点对矿床进行了开采评价。研究结果表明, 新城金矿区工程地质条件简单; 矿床开采形成的采空区对矿区岩体稳定性产生的影响较小, 研究区内的主矿体为地质环境条件良好型矿体。      

地下采矿引起的程潮铁矿东区地表变形规律研究

金属矿山由于其矿体形态多变、地质条件复杂、多非充分采动、开采方法多样、构造应力显著及结构效应明显等特点,难以把握由地下采矿引起的地表变形和岩体的破坏形式。以程潮铁矿东区为例,依据近年（2010年3月至2015年9月）的地表变形实测数据,绘制出相应的监测成果图。结合三维激光扫描等新技术再现地表变形三维盆地,探究了地下开采影响下的地表变形规律和机制。对矿区上下盘地表变形规律等进行了比较分析,结果表明：程潮铁矿东区在采矿初期发生筒状冒落;变形传递到地表后,在采空区正上方形成大小不等的漏斗状塌坑群。上盘地表变形扩展与采矿推进度有较好的对应关系;水平应力是岩体变形的主动力,应力不断释放影响着地表变形特征。结构面倾向改变了上、下盘岩体的破坏形式,减缓和加速了上下盘岩体的破坏。同时,在坡体形态的影响下,地表变形在下坡方向总变形量增大和垂直变形增量更大。     

Non-double-couple mechanisms of microearthquakes induced during the 2000 injection experiment at the KTB site, Germany: A result of tensile faulting or anisotropy of a rock?

Moment tensors of microearthquakes induced during the 2000 injection experiment at the KTB deep drilling borehole at a depth level of 5.4 km are studied. A family of 37 most reliable moment tensors contains significant non-double-couple (non-DC) components. The DC is on average 60% and the non-DC is 40%. Fault plane solutions computed from the DC part show preferred strike-slip mechanisms with small normal or reverse components. A predominant azimuth of P and T axes is in the range of N320°–340°E and of N230°–250°E, respectively. The non-DC components contain both the isotropic (ISO) and compensated linear vector dipole (CLVD) components. The mean value of ISO is 1.5%, the mean value of CLVD is − 5.7%. The predominantly negative CLVD components are inconsistent with the concept of the non-DC mechanisms as a result of tensile faulting due to fluid injection into the rock. The main origin of the non-DC components is probably anisotropy in the focal area. The other origins are errors produced by mismodelling of the medium when calculating the Green functions, and numerical errors produced by noise and limitations of input data. Adopting four alternative models of anisotropy obtained by other seismic measurements at the KTB, we have employed the non-DC components for estimating an optimum orientation of anisotropy in the focal area. The optimum orientation of the symmetry plane of anisotropy is nearly vertical with a strike of N335°–340°E. This strike coincides well with the strike of 330° typical for many major lithological units and faults and with the orientation of the transversely isotropic model inferred by other authors. After removing the anisotropy effects from the moment tensors by calculating the source tensors, the distribution of ISO is significantly narrowed. This indicates predominantly shear, but not tensile faulting.     

Optimization of slope angle of a lead-zinc mine

Summary The present study represents an attempt to optimize the overall slope angle of a lead-zinc mine in Rajasthan state, which could extend to a depth of 170 m during the first phase of mining. Detailed geotechnical investigations were conducted. These included geotechnical mapping, determination of the physio-mechanical properties of intact rock, determination of the rock mass rating and estimation of rock mass properties. Information was collected from mapping of benches and borehole logs. Based on these data, limit equilibrium and numerical simulation techniques were applied in order to assess the stability of the slopes and determine an optimum slope angle. From these investigations it has been inferred that the overall footwall and hangingwall slopes should be 42° and 48° respectively.     

Induced stress and microseismicity in the 3000 Orebody, Mount Isa

Summary The 3000 Orebody is one of two orebodies in the Deep Copper Mine at Mount Isa, Australia. Owing to concerns about potential shaft pillar instabilities, an integrated seismic system was introduced to monitor seismic activity associated with pillar and country rock deformation. Coupled with numerical modelling of the stress regime, the system may assist in the characterization of rock mass damage resulting from mining, and perhaps the identification of near- and far-field geological structures that affect stope performance. A study was undertaken to quantify the seismicity and to determine potential applications of the seismic technology. The relation between geological structure and seismicity is strong, suggesting good prospects for the use of the system in the ground-control activities noted above. The induction of seismicity, which involves small magnitude events, is associated with reduction of normal stress on planes of weakness, suggesting that stress path may be an important factor in the level of seismicity observed in hard rock mines.     

Mining Sequence Deformation and Failure Behaviour Analysis in the hangingwall and Orebody Rock Formations; A Continuum Approach

In this study based on practical geological setting of the hangingwall, orebody and footwall. Two comprehensive evaluation models for selecting the underground mining method to extract the Nchanga Upper Orebody were proposed which constituted of six key attributes of technical economic, rock substance strength, production, orebody dip and thickness. These evaluation models are analyzed by the multiple attribute decision making methods based on eigenvalues, eigenvectors and fuzzy mathematics. In addition two different continuum numerical methods Examine^2D and RS³ are employed to simulate the mining process of the Upper Orebody and finally the optimal mining scheme is determined. By using analytical hierarchy process, Yager’s method and numerical modeling some useful conclusions for mining the highly folded Upper Orebody have been drawn, which will be beneficial to the Nchanga mine.     

基于地震属性分析的红柳林煤矿采空区解释

以红柳林煤矿采空区的三维地震勘探为例,对房柱式采煤形成的采空区的地震波场进行了正演模拟,分析了不同采空区地震波振幅特征、频谱特征及绕射波对采空区地震响应的影响;利用均方根振幅(RMS)属性圈定了小煤窑采空区范围。钻探验证结果表明,利用地震属性解释采空区的应用效果良好。      

A numerical investigation of rock pillar failure mechanism in underground openings

The study of rock pillar failure mechanisms is an issue that is faced routinely in mining and civil industries. In mining operation, the establishment of several mining levels is often necessary to ensure adequate production. This result in the formation of pillars that must be recovered under often high stress conditions at later stages of excavation. It is, therefore, beneficial to develop guidelines that can be used in the design of rock pillars. The aim of this paper is to delve into the mechanisms involved in pillar failure as well as to investigate the non-linear behavior of rock pillars. An extensive numerical analysis was carried out to study the pillar deformation and failure process under natural loading conditions. Effects of pillar geometry and pillar strength parameters on pillar behavior were investigated for hard rock material typical of Canadian mining conditions. Numerical data were compared against field data recorded in Canadian mines. A fairly good match was achieved between numerical and field data and the conducted analysis can be used as a qualitative guideline in the design of rock pillars in underground structures.     

Metamorphic history of a syn‐convergent orogen‐parallel detachment: The South Tibetan detachment system,Bhutan Himalaya

The South Tibetan detachment system (STDS) in the Himalayan orogen is an example of normal‐sense displacement on an orogen‐parallel shear zone during lithospheric contraction. Here, in situ monazite U(–Th)–Pb geochronology is combined with metamorphic pressure and temperature estimates to constrain pressure–temperature–time (P–T–t) paths for both the hangingwall and footwall rocks of a Miocene ductile component of the STDS (outer STDS) now exposed in the eastern Himalaya. The outer STDS is located south of a younger, ductile/brittle component of the STDS (inner STDS), and is characterized by structurally upward decreasing metamorphic grade corresponding to a transition from sillimanite‐bearing Greater Himalayan sequence rocks in the footwall with garnet that preserves diffusive chemical zoning to staurolite‐bearing Chekha Group rocks in the hangingwall, with garnet that records prograde chemical zoning. Monazite ages indicate that prograde garnet growth in the footwall occurred prior to partial melting at 22.6 ± 0.4 Ma, and that peak temperatures were reached following c. 20.5 Ma. In contrast, peak temperatures were reached in the Chekha Group hangingwall by c. 22 Ma. Normal‐sense (top‐to‐the‐north) shearing in both the hangingwall and footwall followed peak metamorphism from c. 23 Ma until at least c. 16 Ma. Retrograde P–T–t paths are compatible with modelled P–T–t paths for an outer STDS analogue that is isolated from the inner STDS by intervening extrusion of a dome of mid‐crustal material.     

Structural and kinematic analysis of the Corredoiras detachment: evidence for early Variscan synconvergent extension in the Ordenes Complex, NW Spain

 An important detachment is described in the allochthonous Ordenes Complex, in the NW Iberian Massif, and its meaning is related to the kinematics of contemporaneous convergent structures. The Corredoiras Detachment (CD) separates a hangingwall unit, characterised by a medium-pressure metamorphic gradient, from a footwall high-pressure and high-temperature unit and an underlying ophiolitic unit. An associated ductile shear zone, nearly 2000 m thick, developed in the lower part of the hangingwall unit, where the Corredoiras Orthogneiss, a Lower Ordovician metagranite, was progressively transformed into augengneisses, mylonitic and ultramylonitic gneisses. The attitude of the stretching and mineral lineation in the mylonites varies due to late refolding at map scale, but the sense of movement can be estimated, being roughly top to the SE. According to crosscutting relationships, the CD developed subsequent to the thrusting of the high-pressure/high-temperature unit onto the ophiolitic unit, and prior to younger extensional detachments, upright folding and strike-slip tectonics. The geometric relationships of the CD with the previous structures in the footwall unit, the subtractive character of the metamorphic gap between its hangingwall and footwall, and the available isotopic data suggest that the CD is an early Variscan, ductile extensional detachment, the movement of which was roughly simultaneous with the onset of thrusting of the allochthonous complexes over their relative autochthon. Received: 17 November 1998 / Accepted: 4 April 1999     

金属矿山采矿推进与地表变形关系研究

分析金属矿山地下采矿引起的地表变形规律,可为地表变形扩展范围的预测与矿山安全生产提供指导。以程潮铁矿为例,对地下采矿情况的调查以及地表GPS、水准和三维激光扫描数据分析,探讨采空区周界变化与移动线和陷落线对应关系,采矿推进与沉降漏斗扩展之间关系,采矿推进与采空区上方及周边测点的变形规律。其结果表明,从2006−2017年间,随着西区–325、–342.5、–358、–375.5、–393 m水平采空区向不断向东移动,西区移动线和陷落线的扩展主要集中在西区东北部,东部和东南部;沉降漏斗东部有新的漏斗中心发育,沉降漏斗曲线逐渐呈2个漏斗中心的特点。采空区正上方测点变形受地下采矿推进直接控制,当开采测点正下方的矿体时测点变形会明显加速,而采空区周边测点,变形加速则受多种因素影响,并基于监测结果,分析了采空区上覆岩体崩落,通过建立采空区周边岩体力学模型,解释了测点变形规律,所得成果可为其他类似金属矿山提供参考。     

Assessment of rigid overlying strata failure in face mining

The method of overlying strata failure assessment of extracted seams is based upon the simultaneous assessment of surface subsidence and seismic activity, considering the spatiatemporal progress of mining, depending on the character of the rock mass. The rigid overlying strata failure assessment results in finding whether a failure of the firm overlying rocks occurred or whether a strutting arch was formed over the mined-out area. The practical importance of the overlying strata failure assessment consists in determining the size of the mined-out area at which the com-plete failure of the rigid overlying strata occurred and in the assessment of the current stress condition of the overlying strata failure. The assessment method is applicable in deep mine workings where thick coal seams are being mined by means of the method of longwall mining with controlled caving. The results of this method are used to amend contemporary known methods of rock-burst protection, namely (regarding the use of surface measurements for the evaluation) in overlying strata areas.     

FLAC~(3D)在预测采空区地面沉陷损毁耕地中的应用

采空区地面沉陷损毁地表耕地是地下开采矿山引发的主要地质环境问题之一,通过对佛子冲铅锌矿104号矿体的工程地质条件、采场结构参数及原岩应力场进行调研,并在此基础上运用FLAC~(3D)建立采空区数学模型,对佛子冲铅锌矿104号矿体采空后采空区地压力分布、岩体变形移动等进行模拟与研究,预测采空区地面沉陷损毁地表耕地的程度,并根据矿山的实际情况提出防治措施,为保护矿山采空区沉陷区内的耕地提供依据和参考。     

Seismic events discrimination by neuro-fuzzy merging of signal and catalogue features

This article presents an original method for the classification of low magnitude seismic events recorded in France by a network of seismometers. Three types of events are discriminated: earthquakes, mining blasts and rock bursts. This method is based on a merging of catalogue measurements and possibly incomplete measurements deduced from several seismic signals related to the event. The merging is performed by a multi-layer neural network. A fuzzy coding is applied to the input characteristics of the neural network. It allows the network to integrate data imperfections during the learning phase. Then, it is possible to process efficiently incomplete data. The results are obtained on a database composed of all the 1,402 seismic events recorded between August 23^rd 1993 and May 30^th 1994. They show that the fuzzy coding and the merging of catalogue features and signal features extracted from several seismometers for each event increase the performance of correct classification to more than 90% even when the database contains missing values. The confusion rate between earthquakes and mining blasts is simultaneously reduced.     

Analytical and Numerical Study on the Pillar Rockbursts Mechanism

Summary. Based on cusp-type catastrophe theory, a sample rock–rock model for studying the pillar rockburst mechanism is presented in this paper. It is shown that the stiffness ratio, K, of the roof and floor to the pillar plays an important role in the outbreak of instability. Additionally, simple formulae for the deformation jump and the energy release are derived. Based on the assumption that there exists a proportional relationship between the number of microseismic events and microfractured elements, the theoretical microseismic event rate produced by the double rock sample, loaded in series under uniaxial compression, is obtained. Using a newly developed numerical code, RFPA^2D, the progressive failure process and associated microseismic behavior of the twin rock samples are simulated, which shows that the spatial distribution of microseismic events develops progressively from disorder at the initial loading stage to order prior to the main shock. The numerically simulated results also confirm that a soft roof and floor promote an unstable failure or collapse of pillars, while a stiff roof and floor can lead to a stable failure of pillars. Additionally, the simulated results reproduce the deformation jump and the energy release that occur during a pillar rockburst. It is demonstrated that the proposed model properly simulates the pillar failure process.     

Seismic source mechanism inversion from a linear array of receivers reveals non-double-couple seismic events induced by hydraulic fracturing in sedimentary formation

We developed a new method to invert source mechanisms of seismic events observed from a single (vertical or near vertical) array of receivers. This method was tested on a synthetic dataset and applied to a seismic dataset acquired during hydraulic fracturing of a sedimentary formation. We show that a crack-opening seismic event recorded on a single vertical array can be inverted as a pure shear seismic event, indicating that the best fitting shear mechanisms inverted from seismic data acquired along a vertical borehole provide misleading information. We found that the majority of the analyzed source mechanisms of the induced events are not consistent with pure shear faulting as previously thought. The non-shear source mechanisms are required even when seismic noise, location uncertainty, and uncertainty in the attenuation structural model are considered.     

An evaluation of the inverted metamorphic gradient at Langtang National Park, Central Nepal Himalaya

Abstract The crystalline core of the Himalayan orogen in the Langtang area of Nepal, located between the Annapurna-Manaslu region and the Everest region, contains middle to upper amphibolite grade pelitic gneisses and schists. These rocks are intimately associated with the Main Central Thrust (MCT), one of the major compressional structures in the northern Indian plate, which forms a 3.7-km-wide zone containing rocks of both footwall and hangingwall affinity. An inverted metamorphic gradient is noticeable from upper footwall through hangingwall rocks, where metamorphic conditions increase from garnet grade near the MCT zone to sillimanite + K-feldspar grade in the upper hangingwall. Petrographic data distinguish two metamorphic episodes that have affected the area: a high-pressure, moderate-temperature episode (M1) and a moderate-pressure, high-temperature episode (M2). Comparison with appropriate reaction boundaries suggests that conditions for M1 in the hangingwall were approximately 900–1200 MPa and 425–525°C. Thermobarometric results for 24 samples from the footwall, MCT zone and hangingwall reflect P-T conditions during the M2 phase of 400–1200 MPa and 490–660° C. The decrease in estimated palaeopressures from footwall to hangingwall approximate a lithostatic gradient of 27 MPa km^-1, with slight fluctuations in the MCT zone reflecting structural discontinuities. In contrast to the palaeopressures, palaeotemperatures are indistinguishable across the entire area sampled. Although field evidence suggests the presence of the inverted palaeothermal gradient well known in the Himalaya, quantitative thermobarometry indicates that temperatures of final equilibration were all within error of each other across 17 km of section. At Langtang, change in pressure is responsible for the presence of the sequence of index minerals through the section. I interpret these data to reflect diachronous attainment of equilibrium temperature conditions in a lithostatic palaeopressure profile after ductile faulting of the sequence.