Computer modelling of clouds at Kleiner Feldberg

The airflow, cloud microphysics and gas- and aqueous-phase chemistry on Kleiner Feldberg have been modelled for the case study of the evening of 1 November 1990, in order to calculate parameters that are not easily measured in the cloud and thus to aid the interpretation of the GCE experimental data-set. An airflow model has been used to produce the updraught over complex terrain for the cloud model, with some care required to ensure realistic modelling of the strong stable stratification of the atmosphere. An extensive set of measurements has been made self-consistent and used to calculate gas and aerosol input parameters for the model. A typical run of the cloud model has calculated a peak supersaturation of 0.55% which occurs about 20 s after entering cloud where the updraught is 0.6 m s^–1. This figure has been used to calculate the efficiency with which aerosol particles were scavenged; it is higher than that calculated by other methods, and produces a cloud with slightly too many droplets. A broad cloud droplet size spectrum has been produced by varying the model inputs to simulate turbulent mixing and fluctuations in cloud parameters in space and time, and the ability of mixing processes near cloud-base to produce a lower peak supersaturation is discussed. The scavenging of soluble gases by cloud droplets has been observed and departures from Henry's Law in bulk cloud-water samples seen to be caused by variation of pH across the droplet spectrum and the inability of diffusion to adjust initial distributions of highly soluble substances across the spectrum in the time available. Aqueous-phase chemistry has been found to play a minor role in the cloud as modelled, but circumstances in which these processes would be more important are identified.     

Multiphase chemistry and acidity of clouds at Kleiner Feldberg

The chemistry of cloud multiphase systems was studied within the Kleiner Feldberg Cloud Experiment 1990. The clouds encountered during this experimental campaign could be divided into two categories according to the origin of air masses in which the clouds formed. From the chemical point of view, clouds passing the sampling site during the first period of the campaign (26 October-4 November) were characterized by lower pollutant loading and higher pH, as compared to clouds during the final period of the experimental campaign (10–13 November). The study of multiphase partitioning of the main chemical constituents of the cloud systems and of atmospheric acidity within the multiphase systems themselves (gas + interstitial aerosol + liquid droplets) are presented in this paper. A general lack of gaseous NH₃ was found in these cloud systems, which caused a lack of buffer capacity toward acid addition. Evidence supports the hypothesis that the higher acidity of the cloud systems during this final period of the campaign was due to input of HNO₃. Our measurements, however, could not determine whether the observed input was due to scavenging of gaseous HNO₃ from the air feeding into the cloud, or to heterogeneous HNO₃ formation via NO₂ oxidation by O₃ to NO₃ and N₂O₅. Sulfate in cloud droplets mainly originated from aerosol SO ₄ ^2– scavenging, since S(IV) to S(VI) liquid phase conversion was inhibited due to both lack of H₂O₂ and low pH of cloud droplets, which made O₃ and metal catalyzed S(IV) oxidation inefficient.     

Impacts of aerosol chemical composition on microphysics and precipitation in deep convection

Aerosols affect precipitation by modifying cloud properties such as cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC). Aerosol effects on CDNC depend on aerosol properties such as number concentration, size spectrum, and chemical composition. This study focuses on the effects of aerosol chemical composition on CDNC and, thereby, precipitation in a mesoscale cloud ensemble (MCE) driven by deep convective clouds. The MCE was observed during the 1997 department of energy's Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) summer experiment. Double-moment microphysics with explicit nucleation parameterization, able to take into account those three properties of aerosols, is used to investigate the effects of aerosol chemical composition on CDNC and precipitation. The effects of aerosol chemical compositions are investigated for both soluble and insoluble substances in aerosol particles. The effects of soluble substances are examined by varying mass fractions of two representative soluble components of aerosols in the continental air mass: sulfate and organics. The increase in organics with decreasing sulfate lowers critical supersaturation (S_c) and leads to higher CDNC. Higher CDNC results in smaller autoconversion of cloud liquid to rain. This provides more abundant cloud liquid as a source of evaporative cooling, leading to more intense downdrafts, low-level convergence, and updrafts. The resultant stronger updrafts produce more condensation and thus precipitation, as compared to the case of 100% sulfate aerosols. The conventional assumption of sulfate aerosol as a surrogate for the whole aerosol mass can be inapplicable for the case with the strong sources of organics. The less precipitation is simulated when an insoluble substance replaces organics as compared to when it replaces sulfate. When the effects of organics on the surface tension of droplet and solution term in the Köhler curve are deactivated by the insoluble substance, S_c is raised more than when the effects of sulfate on the solution term are deactivated by the insoluble substance. This leads to lower CDNC and, thus, larger autoconversion of cloud liquid to rain, providing less abundant cloud liquid as a source of evaporative cooling. The resultant less evaporative cooling produces less intense downdrafts, weaker low-level convergence, updrafts, condensation and, thereby, less precipitation in the case where organics is replaced by the insoluble substance than in the case where sulfate is replaced by the insoluble substance. The variation of precipitation caused by the change in the mass fraction between the soluble and insoluble substances is larger than that caused by the change in the mass fraction between the soluble substances.     

不同云微物理方案对青藏高原一次强降水的模拟影响分析

利用WRF模式中三种云微物理参数化方案(Lin、Eta和WSM6)对青藏高原一次强降水过程进行模拟试验,将模拟降水结果与实测资料进行对比,以评估不同云微物理参数化方案对该区域降水过程的模拟性能。结果表明:三种方案均能够模拟出此次降水天气过程的发生,但在主要降水区域和降水强度两方面仍与实测资料存在偏差;在水凝物方面,三种方案对冰粒子的模拟较接近,Lin和WSM6方案模拟的雪粒子差异较大,但霰粒子无明显差异。进一步对比分析了Lin和WSM6方案模拟的云微物理转化过程,结果表明:这两种方案都表现出了霰向雨水转化的特点。在Lin方案中,通过水汽向霰粒子凝华、霰碰并水汽凝华生成的雪粒子以及霰碰并云水这三种过程生成的霰粒子最终融化为雨水。而在WSM6方案中,一方面水汽凝结成云水,云水被雪和霰粒子碰并收集转化为霰,之后霰融化为雨水;另一方面水汽凝华为冰粒子,一部分冰转化为雪,雪直接融化为雨水或转化为霰融化为雨水,另一部分冰转化为霰,霰融化为雨水。      

祁连山夏季地形云结构和云微物理过程的模拟研究(I):模式云物理方案和地形云结构

对三维非静力中尺度模式ARPS的云降水微物理方案进行了改进,利用改进后的ARPS模式模拟了祁连山地区夏季的两个地形云个例,通过对各自模拟结果的对比分析并结合实况资料研究了夏季祁连山地区地形云的发展状况、动力场特征、降水特征以及云微物理结构特征。研究结果表明,地形云的发展受地形影响很大,地形的抬升促进了云和降水的发展,地形的作用也改变了地面降水特征,使云的宏、微观物理结构发生较大变化。     

Microphysics of clouds at Kleiner Feldberg

During a field measuring campaign at Kleiner Feldberg (Taunus) in 1990, microphysical characteristics of clouds have been measured by Forward Scattering Spectrometer Probes (FSSP). The aim was to study the influence of aerosol and meteorological factors on droplet size and number. The results are: More mass in the accumulation size range of the aerosol leads to more droplets in stratocumulus clouds and to higher soluble masses in droplets of stratus clouds. However, the aerosol distribution was coarser in the stratus clouds compared to the stratocumulus clouds. Within the first 200 m from cloud base, the droplets grow while their number decreases. The growth results in a stable size of about 14 µm diameter over a large distance from cloud base in many stratocumulus clouds. Two types of mixing processes were observed: processes with reductions in the number of droplets (inhomogeneous mixing) and with reductions in the size of the droplets (homogeneous mixing).     

Impact of Cloud Microphysical Processes on the Simulation of Typhoon Rananim near Shore.Part Ⅰ: Cloud Structure and Precipitation Features

By using the Advanced Regional Eta-coordinate Model (AREM),the basic structure and cloud features of Typhoon Rananim are simulated and verified against observations.Five sets of experiments are designed to investigate the effects of the cloud microphysical processes on the model cloud structure and precipitation features.The importance of the ice-phase microphysics,the cooling effect related to microphysical characteristics change,and the influence of terminal velocity of graupel are examined.The results indicate that the cloud microphysical processes impact more on the cloud development and precipitation features of the typhoon than on its intensity and track.Big differences in the distribution pattern and content of hydrometeors,and types and amount of rainfall occur in the five experiments,resulting in different heating and cooling effects.The largest difference of 24-h rain rate reaches 52.5 mm h-1.The results are summarized as follows:1) when the cooling effect due to the evaporation of rain water is excluded,updrafts in the typhoon's inner core are the strongest with the maximum vertical velocity of-19 Pa s-1 and rain water and graupel grow most dominantly with their mixing ratios increased by 1.8 and 2.5 g kg-1,respectively,compared with the control experiment; 2) the melting of snow and graupel affects the growth of rain water mainly in the spiral rainbands,but much less significantly in the eyewall area; 3) the warm cloud microphysical process produces the smallest rainfall area and the largest percentage of convective precipitation (63.19％),while the largest rainfall area and the smallest percentage of convective precipitation (48.85％) are generated when the terminal velocity of graupel is weakened by half.     

相变修正方案在GRAPES模式标量平流中的应用

如何更好地模拟水物质的空间分布和小尺度变化,对于数值天气预报效果的改进,特别是对于更好地模拟降水过程,具有重要的意义.计算机的飞速发展使数值模式的分辨率不断提高,云的显式计算成为可能,这样就要求水物质在平流的过程中必须要做到高精度、守恒、保形.水物质场是正定标量的场,具有空间和时间变化幅度大、存在强梯度甚至不连续的特点,水物质场的合理模拟一直是数值预报中的一个难题.GRAPES模式中的标量平流方案采用PRM分段有理函数方法,比较好地解决了该半拉格朗日模式中水物质平流的高精度、守恒、保形问题,但是当有凝结潜热发生时,由于半拉格朗日平流方案求解上游点时的插值,在云边缘区域会造成虚假的云水,进而导致不合理的相变过程.为了解决以上问题,本研究在GRAPES模式中PRM平流方案的案础上,加入了非线性半拉格朗日相变潜热的修正方案,旨在改进GRAPES模式对水物质平流问题的模拟,提高降水的预报效果.该研究通过理想试验,验证了非线性半拉格朗口相变修正方案可以有效地限制云边缘由于半拉格朗日平流方案插值产生的虚假柑变;然后将该方案加入GRAPES模式的PRM水物质平流方案中,通过实际个例模拟验证了加入非线性半拉格朗日方案以后,模式可以更好地模拟水物质的平流过程,且对云中热力场及水物质分布地模拟更加合理,同时预报出的雨带中心区与实况更加符合.     

积层混合云结构和云微物理的数值模拟

对三维非静力中尺度模式ARPS的云微物理方案进行了改进,利用改进后的模式模拟了华北地区的积层混合云降水个例,通过对模拟结果的分析并结合实况资料研究了积层混合云的降水特征、云物理结构特征和微物理过程。结果表明,积层混合云降水分布不均匀,雨区中存在多个强降水中心,云系中微物理量在水平和垂直方向上分布都不均匀,积云中的垂直液态水积分含量大大高于层云中含量,此次降水冰相过程占主导地位,霰的融化是最主要的雨生成项。     

Dominant cloud microphysical processes of a torrential rainfall event in Sichuan,China

High-resolution numerical simulation data of a rainstorm triggering debris flow in Sichuan Province of China simulated by the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model were used to study the dominant cloud microphysical processes of the torrential rainfall. The results showed that: (1) In the strong precipitation period, particle sizes of all hydrometeors increased, and mean-mass diameters of graupel increased the most significantly, as compared with those in the weak precipitation period; (2) The terminal velocity of raindrops was the strongest among all hydrometeors, followed by graupel’s, which was much smaller than that of raindrops. Differences between various hydrometeors’ terminal velocities in the strong precipitation period were larger than those in the weak precipitation period, which favored relative motion, collection interaction and transformation between the particles. Absolute terminal velocity values of raindrops and graupel were significantly greater than those of air upward velocity, and the stronger the precipitation was, the greater the differences between them were; (3) The orders of magnitudes of the various hydrometeors’ sources and sinks in the strong precipitation period were larger than those in the weak precipitation period, causing a difference in the intensity of precipitation. Water vapor, cloud water, raindrops, graupel and their exchange processes played a major role in the production of the torrential rainfall, and there were two main processes via which raindrops were generated: abundant water vapor condensed into cloud water and, on the one hand, accretion of cloud water by rain water formed rain water, while on the other hand, accretion of cloud water by graupel formed graupel, and then the melting of graupel formed rain water.     

利用双频微波辐射计测空中水汽和云液水含量的个例分析

利用23.8GHz和31.65GHz双频地基微波辐射计观测资料,结合卫星云图、雷达、探空和自记雨量计等资料分析了2005年4月在河南新乡观测的不同云系影响时大气垂直积分含水量(V)和云中液态含水量(L)的演变特征,对4月8日低槽云系影响时V、L的特征进行了分析。结果表明:双频辐射计对空中水汽和液态水反映灵敏,不同天气背景时对应有不同的V、L值分布。云液水含量L的变化与云量的增减有关。降水开始之前,水汽含量V值有明显波动,液态水含量L值也有明显增加,一般增大到0.4mm时即出现降水。这些现象对降水开始有指示意义,可预测云系正处于降水产生的阶段,可应用于人工增雨作业。此外,根据微波辐射计观测资料分析了大气水汽、云液水和地面降水之间的定量关系,云中液态水仅占汽态水的8.7‰左右,落回地面的降水占空中水汽量的18%左右。     

北京一次积层混合云系结构和水分收支的数值模拟分析

本文利用中国气象科学研究院(CAMS)中尺度云分辨模式对2007年10月的一次积层混合云降水过程进行了数值模拟。利用模拟结果结合实测资料, 研究了积层混合云系的宏微观结构和降水特征, 并分析了云系的水分收支及降水效率。结果表明:积层混合云是导致此次北京降水的主要云型;积层混合云降水分布不均匀, 云系中微物理量的水平和垂直分布都不均匀, 具有混合相云的云物理结构。冷云降水过程占主导地位, 雪的融化对雨水的形成贡献最大。北京区域降水过程的主要水汽源地为黄海海面及蒙古国, 两支气流在陕西北部汇合后的西南气流将水汽输送到华北地区, 北京区域以外, 水汽和水凝物主要从西边界和南边界输送到域内。北京区域降水主要时段内, 水物质通量在水平方向上为净流入。对北京区域水汽、水凝物和总水物质的水分收支各项的估算表明, 水物质基本达到平衡。北京区域从2007年10月5日20时至6日14时, 总水成物降水效率、凝结率、凝华率及总水凝物降水效率分别为5.6%、4.77%、4.19%、44.9%。     

Aerosol-cloud chemical fractionation: Enrichment factor analysis of cloud water

A field study was conducted at a mountain-top site in northwestern Colorado. Supercooled cloud water, collected as a function of droplet size, was analyzed for anions, cations and trace elements. Enrichment factors (EF) of SO ₄ ^2– , K⁺, Na⁺ and Cl^– relative to crustal and marine reference elements (Al and Na) were calculated to determine whether chemical fractionation of the aerosol occurs during cloud droplet formation. The largest EF's for all ions were found for droplets less than 10–15 µm diameter. Ratios of the small to large droplet mean EF's ranged from 1 to 2, for SO ₄ ^2– relative to both Al and Na⁺, to 10 to 12 for Na⁺, Cl^– and K⁺, relative to Al. EF's of K⁺ and Cl^– in the bulk cloud water were in crustal and marine proportions, respectively. It was concluded that although bulk could chemistry may indicate a lack of enrichment of a species, this may not be true throughout the droplet size distribution. The higher enrichments in small droplets is likely a result of their formation on small aerosol particles whereas the large droplets form on the largest aerosol particles. This may suppress EF's in precipitation relative to the total aerosol.     

Deep convective cloud scales and direct adjustment of upper troposphere moisture in TWP environment

Summary A conceptually simple model based on cloud geometry is proposed to explain direct adjustment of moisture by convective clouds. The model is tested using deep convective cloud geometry and changes in upper tropospheric humidity in the Tropical Western Pacific (TWP) during TOGACOARE. The model and the data emphasize the importance of clouds larger than a General Circulation Model (GCM) grid box in drying the upper topospheric environment and in sub grid scale clouds in moistening the upper topospheric environment. The convective cloud sizes and changes in moisture are shown to be linked to precipitation rates. The change from clouds that moisten to clouds that dry the environment occurs when the average cloud size in 6.8×10⁴ km² or rain rate of 2.1 mm hr^–1. In a study of moisture change in the sub cloud layer due to convection, Barnes and Garstang (1982) demonstrated that precipitation rates greater than 2 mm hr^–1 resulted in drying. The critical rain rates above which environmental drying occurs is similar for both upper tropospheric regions and the sub cloud. The similarity of the rain rates indicates that the model concepts maybe used to explain direct adjustment of moisture under a variety of conditions.With 12 Figures     

Vertical Structures of Convective and Stratiform Clouds in Boreal Summer over the Tibetan Plateau and Its Neighboring Regions

Cloud is essential in the atmosphere, condensing water vapor and generating strong convective or large-scale persistent precipitation. In this work, the relationships between cloud vertical macro- or microphysical properties, radiative heating rate, and precipitation for convective and stratiform clouds in boreal summer over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) are analyzed and compared with its neighboring land and tropical oceans based on CloudSat/CALIPSO satellite measurements and TRMM precipitation data. The precipitation intensity caused by convective clouds is twofold stronger than that by stratiform clouds. The vertical macrophysics of both cloud types show similar features over the TP, with the region weakening the precipitation intensity and compressing the cloud vertical expansion and variation in cloud top height, but having an uplift effect on the average cloud top height. The vertical microphysics of both cloud types under conditions of no rain over the TP are characterized by lower-level ice water, ice particles with a relatively larger range of sizes, and a relatively lower occurrence of denser ice particles. The features are similar to other regions when precipitation enhances, but convective clouds gather denser and larger ice particles than stratiform clouds over the TP. The atmospheric shortwave (longwave) heating (cooling) rate strengthens with increased precipitation for both cloud types. The longwave cooling layer is thicker when the rainfall rate is less than 100 mm d^?1, but the net heating layer is typically compressed for the profiles of both cloud types over the TP. This study provides insights into the associations between clouds and precipitation, and an observational basis for improving the simulation of convective and stratiform clouds over the TP in climate models.     

2008年初江西中部冰雪风暴过程的数值模拟

利用中国科学院大气物理研究所研制开发的三维对流云模式,对2008年2月1日江西省中部的一次冰雪风暴过程进行了数值模拟。模拟方案分方案A和方案B,方案A云中水物质包括水汽、云水、雨水、冰晶、雪、霰共6类,方案B云中水物质包括水汽、云水、雨水、冰晶、雪共5类。对比分析两种方案的模拟结果表明,模式微物理过程中不包括霰粒项模拟结果更接近实际情况,冰晶在雪产生的初始阶段起着主要作用,但以后时段风暴内的冰晶效应使风暴内过饱和水汽在雪片上的凝华增长过程中起着主要作用。     

Phase partitioning of aerosol particles in clouds at Kleiner Feldberg

The partitioning of aerosol particles between cloud droplets and interstitial air by number and volume was determined both in terms of an integral value and as a function of size for clouds on Mt. Kleiner Feldberg (825 m asl), in the Taunus Mountains north-west of Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Differences in the integral values and the size dependent partitioning between two periods during the campaign were observed. Higher number and volume concentrations of aerosol particles in the accumulation mode were observed during Period II compared to Period I. In Period I on average 87±11% (±one standard deviation) and 73±7% of the accumulation mode volume and number were incorporated into cloud droplets. For Period II the corresponding fractions were 42±6% and 12±2% in one cloud event and 64±4% and 18±2% in another cloud event. The size dependent partitioning as a function of time was studied in Period II and found to have little variation. The major processes influencing the partitioning were found to be nucleation scavenging and entrainment.     

青海对流云数值模拟分析

利用中国气象科学研究院三维对流云模式和2002年青海省河南县秋季外场试验取得的资料，进行了数值模拟试验。该地区秋季对流云降水主要为冷云降水，暖雨过程不易启动。降雨主要是由于霰落入暖层融化，雨水的蒸发是雨水减少的主要机制。霰在降水的产生中发挥了重要作用。霰的生成又与冰晶密切相关。冰晶是霰的主要来源，而且也是霰生长的主要因素。初始的霰粒主要由冰霰自动转化生成，而较少由雨滴冻结生成。霰胚通过收集过冷云水和冰晶与霰的碰并又促进了霰的进一步生长。冰晶的生成主要是由于自然冰核的核化，因此，自然冰核的数浓度对整个降水过程都有影响。霰是云中过冷水消耗的主要因素。