OBSERVATION AND MODEL ANALYSES OF POSITIVE CLOUD-TO-GROUND LIGHTNING IN MESOSCALE CONVECTIVE SYSTEMS*

The analyses of spatial and temporal characteristics of positive cloud-to-ground(CG) lightning for four mesoscale convective systems and two severe local convective systems in 1989 and 1990 show that positive CG flash rate usually has two peak values.The major peak occurs during the developing stage of the storm and most of the positive CG flashes originate at the lower part of the storm.The minor occurs during the dissipative stage of the storm and most of the positive CG flashes originate at the upper part of the storm,especially in the region of the wind divergence in the storm anvil.The positive CG flash rate is almost an order of magnitude larger in the developing stage than in the dissipative stage.The appearing time of the peak of negative CG flash rate is in accordance with that of the valley of positive CG flash rate.The higher the intensity of the radar echo,the higher the positive CG flash rate.Most of the positive CG flashes occur when the weak echo area is larger,and mostly originate in the region where the radar echo intensity is about 10dBz and in the back region of the moving storms.The spatial distribution of the positive CG flashes is much more dispersive than that of the negative.The mesoscale analysis reveals a bipolar lightning pattern.The mean bipole-length reaches its minimum during the mature stage of the storm and reaches the maximum during the developing stage of the storm.The vertical distribution of the charge density is calculated by a one-dimensional charging model.Then,we discuss the producing condition of the positive CG lightning and forming cause of charge structure mentioned above.     

低纬高原一次飑线过程的地闪演变特征分析

利用雷电定位资料、多普勒雷达资料和FY-2E红外卫星资料,分析了滇西南一次典型飑线过程的地闪变化特征。结果表明,这是一次由切变线云带内的对流单体与台风外围对流单体合并形成的典型飑线过程。在飑线发展初期,负地闪占主导地位,地闪频数在波动中缓慢增加;在飑线成熟阶段,地闪频数较高,负地闪频数达到最大峰值前10～15min,正地闪出现最大峰值;在飑线减弱阶段,地闪频数急速下降,正地闪所占比例急剧增加,当正地闪所占比例超过地闪总数的8%以上时,地闪活动开始呈减弱特征。负地闪主要发生在强对流区(>40dBz),对应着径向速度场上的辐合区,密集的正地闪发生在飑线成熟阶段,对应着辐合区附近>40dBz的强回波区域,稀疏的正地闪发生在强回波外围的云砧或稳定性降水部位。在飑线整个发展阶段,-10℃,-20℃层高度上雷达回波强度的每一次跳跃变化都对应着地闪频数的跳跃发展,且-10℃和-20℃层高度上雷达回波强度总在地闪频数变化之前6～30min。负地闪集中出现在-92～-90℃和-76～-74℃的云区,而正地闪集中发生在-90～-60℃的云区。     

北京一次强飑线过程的闪电辐射源演变特征及其与对流区域和地面热力条件的关系

利用2015年夏季北京闪电综合探测（BLNET）总闪辐射源定位、多普勒天气雷达、地面自动气象站和探空资料等多种协同观测资料,详细分析了2015年8月7日北京一次强飑线过程不同阶段的闪电特征,并探讨了闪电与对流区域和地面热力条件之间的关系。飑线过程整体上以云闪为主,根据雷达回波和闪电频数可以将飑线过程分为发展、增强及减弱三个阶段。发展阶段表现为多个孤立的γ中尺度对流降水单体,随着北京城区降水单体的迅速发展,强回波顶高延伸到-20℃温度层高度,闪电辐射源高度也逐步增加,闪电明显增多,但总闪电频数整体低于80次/min。增强阶段单体合并,闪电频数快速增长,0℃层以上及以下的强回波（＞40 dBZ）体积明显增大,飑线形成后,总闪和地闪均达到峰值,分别约248次/min和18次/min,负地闪占总地闪比例为90%,辐射源主要分布在线状对流降水区内,辐射源数量峰值出现在5～9 km高度层。减弱阶段飑线主体下降到0℃以下并迅速衰减,辐射源分布明显向后部层云降水区倾斜。95%的闪电发生在对流线附近10 km范围内,即对流云区和过渡区。在系统发展和增强阶段,对流云区与层云区辐射源的活跃时段基本一致;系统减弱阶段,对流降水云区辐射源数量迅速减少。在系统的不同发展阶段,闪电活跃区域对应于冷池出流同平原暖湿气流在近地面形成的相当位温强梯度带内。     

华北一次强对流天气系统的地闪时空演变特征分析

利用地面雷电探测网,多普勒天气雷达和常规天气资料,分析了2005年8月1日发生在山东北部的一次具有前部对流线,后部大范围层状云降水(LLTS)的典型中尺度对流系统(MCS)的闪电活动演变特征。结果表明:整个过程中负地闪占主导地位,最高频数达到260次/5min;与负地闪比较,正地闪呈现不活跃状态。负地闪主要落在>40 dBz的强回波区内部及其边缘区域,而正地闪则分布在前部云砧和后部层状云降水区内。对地闪位置与回波强度的进一步对比分析发现,45~55 dBz的回波是最有利于地闪发生的区域,回波强度低于这一区域,随着回波强度的增大,地闪活动呈递增趋势,地闪频数在50~55 dBz的回波区域内达到峰值,>55 dBz的回波区域内地闪频数明显降低。     

华北一次中尺度对流系统中的闪电活动特征及其与雷暴动力过程的关系研究

利用地面地闪定位资料、多普勒天气雷达和常规气象资料, 分析了一次具有前部对流线和后部大范围层状云降水(LLTS)的典型中尺度对流系统(MCS)的闪电活动演变特征。整个MCS生命史中负地闪占主导地位, 正地闪则表现不活跃。观测得到MCS消散阶段云闪与地闪的比例为2∶1, 地闪主要分布在地面相对位温和对流不稳定能量均达到高值的区域; 负地闪主要密集地分布在大于40 dBZ的回波范围内; 正地闪则稀疏地分布在30～40 dBZ的回波范围内。在低于-40℃的温度区域内地闪分布较多, 而密集的地闪分布在温度梯度大的区域内。结合单多普勒雷达的水平风场反演, 发现地闪集中出现在气流表现为气旋性切变或水平风呈现切变的区域。该区域与MCS的强回波区相对应, 并且地闪易发生在上升气流达到最大并开始出现下沉气流的阶段。     

一次中尺度雷暴大风过程的闪电特征分析

2005年6月21日山东北部出现了一次中尺度对流系统,并伴有地面灾害性大风。作者综合闪电定位资料、雷达和卫星资料详细分析了这次中尺度对流系统的闪电活动特征,结果表明,在系统初始发展阶段地闪频数快速增加.成熟阶段地闪频数一直较高,且都在20次/5 min以上,在减弱消散阶段,正地闪比例超过负地闪。负地闪多发生在对流降水区,而正地闪则对应于稳定的层状云降水区。逐小时地闪次数峰值滞后于云顶最低温度峰值,小于-50℃的冷云覆盖面积峰值滞后于地闪次数峰值。这次地面大风主要是较强下沉气流底部外流造成的,利用WINDEX计算的地面最大风速潜势与观测的阵风值非常接近。地面大风阶段对应着剧烈的闪电活动,地闪频数的跃增略提前于地面强风发生时间,这对灾害性天气过程的监测预警具有一定的参考价值。     

春季与夏季两次雷暴大气结构及地闪特征对比

利用NCEP再分析资料、探空资料、闪电定位资料和南京、常州多普勒雷达资料,通过对比分析南京2012年2月22日春季雷暴和2011年8月10日夏季雷暴两次过程,研究不同季节影响雷暴发生的大气结构以及强弱雷暴地闪特征的差异。结果表明:风矢位温(V-3θ)图揭示的大气动力热力水汽特征能够为雷暴的潜势预报提供先兆信息。两者相较而言,春季雷暴的动力抬升作用明显;夏季雷暴主要由热对流引起,对流层上层的动力抽吸作用不明显。春季弱雷暴正地闪在总地闪中所占比例较高。无论春季弱雷暴还是夏季强雷暴,地闪落点与辐合区对应关系明显,且地闪的落点也与雷达反射率因子有较好的对应关系:地闪主要分布在强回波区(大于40 d Bz)及其外围区域。但在较强雷暴云的发展阶段,地闪多发生在风暴体伸展方向的一侧,具有引导雷达回波移动的作用,夏季强雷暴地闪簇集在垂直风切变区域。     

Evolution of the Total Lightning Activity in a Leading-Line and Trailing Stratiform Mesoscale Convective System over Beijing

Data from the Beijing SAFIR 3000 lightning detection system and Doppler radar provided some insights into the three-dimensional lightning structure and evolution of a leading-line and trailing-stratiform (LLTS) mesoscale convective system (MCS) over Beijing on 31 July 2007. Most of the lightning in the LLTS-MCS was intracloud (IC) lightning, while the mean ratio of positive cloud-to-ground (+CG) lightning to -CG lightning was 1:4, which was higher than the average value from previous studies. The majority of CG lightning occurred in the convective region of the radar echo, particularly at the leading edge of the front. Little IC lightning and little +CG lightning occurred in the stratiform region. The distribution of the CG lightning indicated that the storm had a tilted dipole structure given the wind shear or the tripole charge structure. During the storm’s development, most of the IC lightning occurred at an altitude of ～9.5 km; the lightning rate reached its maximum at 10.5 km, the altitude of IC lightning in the mature stage of the storm. When the thunderstorm began to dissipate, the altitude of the IC lightning decreased gradually. The spatial distribution of lightning was well correlated with the rainfall on the ground, although the peak value of rainfall appeared 75 min later than the peak lightning rate.     

ANALYSIS OF CLOUD-TO-GROUND LIGHTNING CHARACTERISTICS IN MESOSCALE STORM IN BELIING AREA*

The research indicates that there is a positive correlation between the negative CG flash rate and the area of radar echo with its reflectivity being equal to or greater than 30 dBz in the mesoscale convective system in Beijing area.A maximum of the positive CG flash rate exists at both the initial and the dissipating stages.The CG flashes are usually located near but not within the high reflectivity center.The negative flashes are associated with.the positions of the updraft region,and with the regions of wind convergence and wind shear.Generally,the negative CG flashes are concentrative and the positive ones are dispersive.     

ANALYSIS OF CLOUD-TO-GROUND LIGHTNING CHARACTERISTICS IN MESOSCALE STORM IN BELIING AREA

The research indicates that there is a positive correlation between the negative CG flash rate and the area of radarecho with its reflectivity being equal to or greater than 30 dBz in the mesoscale convective system in Beijing area.A max-imum of the positive CG flash rate exists at both the initial and the dissipating stages.The CG flashes are usually locatednear but not within the high reflectivity center.The negative flashes are associated with.the positions of the updraft re-gion,and with the regions of wind convergence and wind shear.Generally,the negative CG flashes are concentrative andthe positive ones are dispersive.     

Lightning activity related to satellite and radar observations of a mesoscale convective system over Texas on 7–8 April 2002

A multi-sensor study of the leading-line, trailing-stratiform (LLTS) mesoscale convective system (MCS) that developed over Texas in the afternoon of 7 April 2002 is presented. The analysis relies mainly on operationally available data sources such as GOES East satellite imagery, WSR-88D radar data and NLDN cloud-to-ground flash data. In addition, total lightning information in three dimensions from the LDAR II network in the Dallas–Ft. Worth region is used.GOES East satellite imagery revealed several ring-like cloud top structures with a diameter of about 100 km during MCS formation. The Throckmorton tornadic supercell, which had formed just ahead of the developing linear MCS, was characterized by a high CG+ percentage below a V-shaped cloud top overshoot north of the tornado swath. There were indications of the presence of a tilted electrical dipole in this storm. Also this supercell had low average CG− first stroke currents and flash multiplicities. Interestingly, especially the average CG+ flash multiplicity in the Throckmorton storm showed oscillations with an estimated period of about 15 min.Later on, in the mature LLTS MCS, the radar versus lightning activity comparison revealed two dominant discharge regions at the back of the convective leading edge and a gentle descent of the upper intracloud lightning region into the trailing stratiform region, apparently coupled to hydrometeor sedimentation. There was evidence for an inverted dipole in the stratiform region of the LLTS MCS, and CG+ flashes from the stratiform region had high first return stroke peak currents.     

强对流天气雷达回波与闪电特征的个例分析

利用闪电定位资料和多普勒天气雷达强度产品,分析了2006年6月22日发生在南京西南140km处的一次强对流天气过程中闪电的演变特征及其与回波强度的关系。结果表明,地闪多发生于雷暴云中回波强度大于40dBz且回波强度梯度较大的区域;正、负地闪频次在强对流系统发展的不同阶段呈现出不同的特点,负地闪占总闪数的90％以上,正地闪出现在系统进入成熟阶段之后,且占总闪的比例在系统消散阶段明显增大;地闪强度越大,相应的地闪频次越小,除少数弱闪（1/1〈10kA）外,二者基本上呈反相位关系。     

Lightning and Doppler radar observations of a squall line system

A typical squall line with damaging wind and hailstones occurred on 28 April 2006 in Shandong Province, middle eastern China, and caused great economic loss. The characteristics of cloud-to-ground lightning (CG) in the squall line were studied in detail by combining the data from the ground-based CG location network, two Doppler radars and the Lightning Imaging Sensor on the TRMM satellite. Results show that positive CG flashes accounted for 54.7% of the total CG flashes. During the initial developing stage, the CG flash rate was lower than 0.5fl min^{− 1} and most of the CG flashes were positive. It increased significantly, up to 4.5fl min^{− 1}, along with the rapid development of the squall line, and the percentage of positive CG was more than 75% during this period. The CG flash rate began to decrease but the percentage of negative CG flash increased gradually and exceeded that of positive CG during the mature and dissipating stages. Positive CG flashes tended to occur on the right flank and negative ones on the left flank. Strong wind at the surface occurred in or near the regions with dense positive CG flashes. Almost all positive CG flashes occurred near the strong radar echo regions, in the front parts of the squall line. However, the negative CG flashes almost exclusively occurred in the regions with weak and uniform radar echoes. The total flash rate in the storm was very high, up to 136fl min^{− 1}, and its ratio of intracloud flashes (IC) to CG flashes was 35:1. Dense positive CG flashes corresponded to updraft regions, they did not occur in the core of the updraft, but just behind and close to the main updraft instead. The rear inflow jet, between 3 and 6 km, played an important role in the formation of the bow echo and very strong wind at surface. The CG distribution features in the squall line were obviously different from that of an ordinary MCS. The charge structure could be roughly described as an inverted charge structure.     

南京一次雷雨的闪电特征与多尺度资料分析

为探究闪电与其他气象要素之间的关系及可预报性,本文利用探空资料、多普勒天气雷达资料、闪电定位仪资料、卫星云图资料和地面自动气象站资料,对2009年7月7日南京雷雨天气进行多尺度分析.结果表明:暴雨过程中负地闪始终占较大比例,正地闪的数目在雷暴消散阶段稍有增长;地闪频数与地面风速时序变化呈现很好的一致性;雷暴来临前风矢位温特征表明对流云发展高度较高,对流层顶的薄层超低温为强对流发生提供了热力不稳定的先兆信息,整层大气深厚的顺时针垂直切变及中低层偏南风为强对流天气提供了有利的动力和水汽条件,为雷暴潜势预报提供了依据;地闪分布与雷达回波顶高、强的风切变区域以及暴雨落区有明显对应关系;负地闪密集区位于雷达强回波核前方强度为40 ～45dBz区域处,对于回波的未来移向有指示作用.     

山东一次飑线过程的闪电特征和大风形成机制分析

利用闪电定位资料、多普勒雷达资料和卫星资料分析2016年6月13日发生在山东的一次飑线天气过程的地闪变化特征和大风形成机制,结果表明:本次过程发生在东北冷涡影响背景下,大气层结上冷下暖,随着层结不稳定性逐渐增强和不稳定能量的积蓄,在较强的深厚垂直风切变环境下触发强对流风暴进而组织成飑线。整个飑线过程中负地闪占主导地位,约占地闪总数的89.25%;在飑线的成熟阶段,负地闪频数达到最大峰值后的5～10 min,正地闪也出现最大峰值;负地闪主要出现在回波发展至成熟阶段,多发生在45 dBZ的强回波区域中;正地闪主要出现在飑线的成熟至消散阶段;当TBB达到最低值时,飑线达到最强盛阶段,地闪频数达顶峰。利用WINDEX计算的地面最大风速的潜势与观测的地面极大风速较接近;地面大风阶段对应着剧烈的闪电活动,冰雹大风等灾害性天气的最强时刻与正地闪的峰值出现时间较为一致。     

云南两次中尺度对流雷暴系统演变和地闪特征

在利用NCEP/NCAR再分析资料诊断分析2010年9月21—23日中尺度对流雷暴系统形成的环流背景基础上,通过云南省闪电定位系统地闪监测资料和FY-2E卫星云图资料的同步叠加, 分析两个中尺度雷暴系统的演变和地闪特征。结果表明:台风凡亚比 (1011) 西行减弱的热带低压为中尺度对流雷暴系统提供有利的暖湿和抬升动力环流背景,促使中尺度弧状对流云带、中尺度雷暴云团和中尺度对流复合体生成和发展。雷暴云团结构和地闪活动空间分布不均匀并随时间变化,且正、负地闪频数与云顶亮温 (TBB) 相关,当TBB降低和等值线密度变大,雷暴云团发展,低TBB中心偏于云团的前部云区,负地闪频数剧增;当TBB达最低值时,雷暴云团成熟,负地闪频数达峰值,正地闪出现;当TBB升高且等值线密度变小时,雷暴云团减弱,低TBB中心靠近云团中心,负地闪频数迅速减小,正地闪频数达到峰值;密集的负地闪出现在雷暴云团前部大的TBB梯度区和TBB不大于-56℃的低值中心附近,正地闪分散在TBB不大于-56℃的低值中心附近,偏于负地闪区域后部发生。     

北京夏季强雷暴降水回波结构与闪电特征个例分析

利用北京市气象局短时临近交互预报系统（VIPS）资料,对2008年奥运会期间两次强降水天气过程雷达回波结构及闪电时空特征进行了细致分析。结果表明,局地性强雷暴降雨天气中,降雨率峰值与闪电活动峰值关系有超前也有略滞后的情况;关于云闪和地闪出现时间,云闪一般要超前地闪5～15min;强降水回波单体中,总闪电次数的70％以上出现在大于40dBZ的强回波区,当最大回波强度大于60dBZ时,云闪出现在强回波区的概率接近90％,说明回波强度越强,云闪出现在强回波区的概率越大;对云闪与雷达回波垂直结构分析发现,强降水单体中云闪发生的高度主要在6km以上,且云闪发生频数峰值出现在8～11km高度。     

A Case Study of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Activities in Hailstorms under Cold Eddy Synoptic Situation

There were three hailstorms in Shandong Province,caused by a same northeast cold eddy situation on 1 June 2002.Cloud-to-ground (CG) flashes occurring in the weather event were observed by Shandong Lightning Detection Network (SLDN),which consists of 10 sensors covering all over Shandong Province.The temporal and spatial distributions of CG lightning are investigated for the three hailstorms by using the data from SLDN,Doppler radar and satellite.The results show that different thunderstorms present different lightning features even if under the same synoptic situation.The percentage of positive CG lightning is very high during the period of hail falling.CG flashes mainly occurred in the region with a cloud top brightness temperature lower than -50°C.Negative CG flashes usually clustered in the lower temperature region and tended to occur in the region with maximum temperature gradient,while the positive ones usually spread discretely.Negative CG flashes usually occurred in intense echo regions with reflectivity greater than 50 dBz,while the positive CG flashes often occurred in weak and stable echo regions (10-30 dBz) or cloud anvils,although they can be observed in strong convective regions sometimes.Almost all hail falling took place in the stage with active positive flashes,and the peak positive flash rate is a little prior to the hail events.The thunderstorm could lead to disastrous weather when positive CG lightning activities occur in cluster.Severe thunderstorms sometimes present a low flash rate at its vigorous stage,which is probably caused by the"mechanism of chargeregion lift"through investigating the reflectivity evolution.Combined with the total lightning (intracloud and CG) data obtained by LIS onboard TRMM,the phenomenon of high ratio of intracloud flash to CG flash in severe hailstorm has been discussed.The competition of the same charge sources between different lightning types can also be helpful for explaining the cause of low CG lightning activities in severe storms.     

The characteristics of cloud-to-ground lightning activity in hailstorms over northern China

The characteristics of cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning for ten hailstorms in Shandong Province of China were analyzed statistically. It is found that the hailstorms in this study present dominant positive CG flashes during periods of falling hail. One specific hailstorm on 16 June 2006 was studied in detail using the data from a CG lightning location network, Doppler radar and cloud images. Comparison between the brightness temperature of cloud-top and CG flash locations indicated that most flashes occurred in the region with temperatures lower than − 40 °C, while dense positive CG flashes occurred in the range between − 40 °C and − 50 °C. Negative CG flashes occurred mostly in the relative weak radar echo region, and positive CG flashes were distributed in the strong echo region especially with a large gradient of echo intensity. CG flashes tended to occur in the cloud region with reflectivity between 25 dBZ and 35 dBZ. Comparison between the wind field retrieved from Doppler radar and the location of CG flashes indicated that the flashes were located in the convergent region at lower to middle levels.     

沿海地区一次中尺度对流系统闪电活动及降水结构

利用TRMM卫星的测雨雷达,微波成像仪,闪电成像仪等探测数据,研究了2010年8月5日发生在江苏北部一次中尺度对流系统(MCS)的降水结构和闪电活动之间的关系.结果表明:MCS在发展阶段,对流云降水面积与层状云降水区相当;在减弱阶段,层状云降水区面积远大于对流云降水区.MCS的生命史中,大部分闪电发生在对流云区,仅有少数闪电发生在层状云区,在减弱阶段闪电多发生在对流云和层云的过渡区中.发生闪电的层云和对流云降水垂直廓线表明:在MCS的发展成熟和减弱中在4 km高度,层云降水率都达到最大值;在对流云降水区中发生闪电主要与对流云上空含丰富的冰相粒子和对流云发展厚度(顶高达17 km)有关.研究还表明闪电数目最大值一般回波强度在35～45 dBz之间,并非回波越强闪电越多.闪电主要发生在40～50 dBz之间,且明显向强回波区趋近,这对我们利用雷达回波预警闪电落区具有一定的参考意义.