Modified HNO3 seasonality in volcanic layers of a polar ice core: Snow-pack effect or photochemical perturbation?

Using the chemical composition of snow and ice of a central Greenland ice core, we have investigated changes in atmospheric HNO₃ chemistry following the large volcanic eruptions of Laki (1783), Tambora (1815) and Katmai (1912). The concentration of several cations and anions, including SO ₄ ^2– and NO ₃ ^– , were measured using ion chromatography. We found that following those eruptions, the ratio of the concentration of NO ₃ ^– deposited during winter to that deposited during summer was significantly higher than during nonvolcanic periods. Although we cannot rule out that this pattern originates from snow pack effects, we propose that increased concentrations of volcanic H₂SO₄ particles in the stratosphere may have favored condensation and removal of HNO₃ from the stratosphere during Arctic winter. In addition, this pattern might have been enhanced by slower formation of HNO₃ during summer, caused by direct consumption of OH through oxidation of volcanic SO₂.     

A review of global stratospheric aerosol: Measurements, importance, life cycle, and local stratospheric aerosol

Stratospheric aerosol, noted after large volcanic eruptions since at least the late 1800s, were first measured in the late 1950s, with the modern continuous record beginning in the 1970s. Stratospheric aerosol, both volcanic and non-volcanic are sulfuric acid droplets with radii (concentrations) on the order of 0.1–0.5 µm (0.5–0.005 cm^− 3), increasing by factors of 2–4 (10–10³) after large volcanic eruptions. The source of the sulfur for the aerosol is either through direct injection from sulfur-rich volcanic eruptions, or from tropical injection of tropospheric air containing OCS, SO₂, and sulfate particles. The life cycle of non-volcanic stratospheric aerosol, consisting of photo-dissociation and oxidation of sulfur source gases, nucleation/condensation in the tropics, transport pole-ward and downward in the global planetary wave driven tropical pump, leads to a quasi steady state relative maximum in particle number concentration at around 20 km in the mid latitudes. Stratospheric aerosol have significant impacts on the Earth's radiation balance for several years following volcanic eruptions. Away from large eruptions, the direct radiation impact is small and well characterized; however, these particles also may play a role in the nucleation of near tropopause cirrus, and thus indirectly affect radiation. Stratospheric aerosol play a larger role in the chemical, particularly ozone, balance of the stratosphere. In the mid latitudes they interact with both nitrous oxides and chlorine reservoirs, thus indirectly affecting ozone. In the polar regions they provide condensation sites for polar stratospheric clouds which then provide the surfaces necessary to convert inactive to active chlorine leading to polar ozone loss. Until the mid 1990s the modern record has been dominated by three large sulfur-rich eruptions: Fuego (1974), El Chichón (1982) and Pinatubo (1991), thus definitive conclusions concerning the trend of non-volcanic stratospheric aerosol could only recently be made. Although anthropogenic emissions of SO₂ have changed somewhat over the past 30 years, the measurements during volcanically quiescent periods indicate no long term trend in non-volcanic stratospheric aerosol.     

Volcanoes and Climate: Sizing up the Impact of the Recent Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai Volcanic Eruption from a Historical Perspective

An undersea volcano at Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai (HTHH) near the South Pacific island nation of Tonga, erupted violently on 15 January 2022. Potential climate impact of the HTHH volcanic eruption is of great concern to the public; here, we intend to size up the impact of the HTHH eruption from a historical perspective. The influence of historical volcanic eruptions on the global climate are firstly reviewed, which are thought to have contributed to decreased surface temperature, increased stratospheric temperature, suppressed global water cycle, weakened monsoon circulation and El Ni?o-like sea surface temperature. Our understanding of the impacts of past volcanic eruptions on global-scale climate provides potential implication to evaluate the impact of the HTHH eruption. Based on historical simulations, we estimate that the current HTHH eruption with an intensity of 0.4 Tg SO₂ injection will decrease the global mean surface temperature by only 0.004°C in the first year after eruption, which is within the amplitude of internal variability at the interannual time scale and thus not strong enough to have significant impacts on the global climate.     

Meteorological responses to Mt. Baekdu volcanic eruption over east asia in an offline global climate-chemistry model: A pilot study

We examine the meteorological responses due to the probable eruption of Mt. Baekdu using an off-line Climate-Chemistry model that is composed of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Climate Atmosphere Model version 3 (CAM3) and a global chemistry transport model (GEOS-Chem). Using the aerosol dataset from the GEOS-Chem driven by GEOS-5 meteorology, experiment and control simulations of the climate model are performed and their meteorological differences between the two simulations are analyzed. The magnitudes of volcanic eruption and column injection height were presumably set to 1/200 of the Mt. Pinatubo eruption and 9 km, respectively. Significant temperature drop in the lower troposphere (850 hPa), which is mainly due to a direct effect of prescribed volcanic aerosols from Mt. Baekdu, has been simulated up to about ?4 K. The upper atmosphere (150 hPa) right above the volcano, however, shows significant warming due to the absorption of the infrared radiation by volcanic aerosols. As a result of the volcanic eruption in the climate model, wave-like patterns are shown in both the geopotential height and horizontal wind. The changes in the lower atmospheric temperature are well associated with the modification of the atmospheric circulation through the hydrostatic balance. In spite of limitations in our current simulations due to several underlying assumptions, our results could give a clue to understanding the meteorological impacts from Mt. Baekdu eruptions that are currently attracting considerable public attention.     

Rainwater Chemistry at Mt. Etna (Italy): Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Major Ions

Major ion content of 37 wet-only rainwater samples collected on the southern flank of Mount Etna volcano was investigated. Measured pH values range from 3.80 to 7.22 and display a positive correlation with Ca²⁺ and an inverse correlation with NO₃ ^–, suggesting that anthropogenic NO_x are the most effective acidifying agents while Ca, likely as solid CaCO₃, is the prevailing proton acceptor. Na/Cl ratios indicate a dominant marine origin for both species, while K, mg and Ca contents point to additional sources (soil dust, fertilisers etc.). Nitrate and sulphate concentrations display a nearly constant ratio indicating a common anthropogenic origin, and only a few samples are characterised by sulphate excess. The analysis of time series reveals a good correlation between the excess sulphate in rainwater and SO₂ fluxes from the summit craters plume. Non sea salt chloride contents show also a significant correlation with volcanic activity indicating a magmatic sulphur and chloride contribution to rainwater. Meteoric flux estimations point to a prevailing magmatic origin for sulphur in the collected rainwaters while sea spray is the main source of chlorine.     

A global three-dimensional model of the tropospheric sulfur cycle

The tropospheric part of the atmospheric sulfur cycle has been simulated in a global three-dimensional model. The model treats the emission, transport, chemistry, and removal processes for three sulfur components; DMS (dimethyl sulfide), SO₂ and SO₄ ^2– (sulfate). These processes are resolved using an Eulerian transport model, the MOGUNTIA model, with a horizontal resolution of 10° longitude by 10° latitude and with 10 layers in the vertical between the surface and 100 hPa. Advection takes place by climatological monthly mean winds. Transport processes occurring on smaller space and time scales are parameterized as eddy diffusion except for transport in deep convective clouds which is treated separately. The simulations are broadly consistent with observations of concentrations in air and precipitation in and over polluted regions in Europe and North America. Oxidation of DMS by OH radicals together with a global emission of 16 Tg DMS-S yr^–1 from the oceans result in DMS concentrations consistent with observations in the marine boundary layer. The average turn-over times were estimated to be 3, 1.2–1.8, and 3.2–6.1 days for DMS, SO₂, and SO₄ ^2– respectively.     

Uncertainty estimation of the global temperature trends for multiple radiosondes, reanalyses, and CMIP3/IPCC climate model simulations

Based on three groups of datasets that include radiosondes, reanalyses, and climate model simulations (e.g., Coupled Model Intercomparison Project, CMIP3) from 1979 to 2008, the interannual variability, global temperature trends, and their uncertainty using ensemble spread among intra-group and inter-group datasets have been discussed. The results show that the interannual temperature variability increased from the troposphere to stratosphere, and the maximum occurs around 50?hPa. The CMIP3 climate models have the largest discrepancy in the stratosphere. The intra-group correlations at 500?hPa generally show high similarity within each data group while the inter-group correlations between reanalyses and the CMIP3 climate model simulations indicate lesser similarity. In contrast, the inter-group correlation at 50?hPa is improved except with the Japanese 25-year Reanalysis Project (JRA-25) dataset, and the Twentieth Century Reanalysis (20CR) reanalysis shows a weak cross correlation. The global temperature trends are highly dependent on the individual data sources. Compared to the radiosondes, the reanalyses show a large ensemble spread of trends in the stratosphere, and the CMIP3 climate model simulations have a large ensemble spread in the height of the crossover point where tropospheric warming changes into stratospheric cooling. The largest ensemble spread among the reanalyses in the stratosphere is mainly from the large discrepancy in the JRA-25 reanalysis after 1998 and a relatively weak anomaly in the 20CR before 1986. The largest ensemble spread among the CMIP3 climate models in the troposphere is related to the influence of both volcanic eruptions and El Ni?o/La Ni?a–Southern Oscillation events. The strong anomalies corresponding to the volcanic eruptions of El Chichon in 1982 and Mt Pinatubo in 1991 are clearly identified in the stratosphere. These volcanic eruptions reduced the warming in the troposphere and strengthened the cooling in the stratosphere during the most recent 30?years.     

北京秋季一次典型大气污染过程多站点分析

多站点多种大气污染物的同步在线观测对深入剖析大气污染的成因和演变机制有重要意义。以龙潭湖、北京325 m塔、双清路和阳坊4监测站点实时NO_x、SO₂、O₃、PM2.5和PM10浓度观测数据为基础,介绍了北京地区2010年10月3～11日发生的一次典型污染过程。不同污染物在污染过程中变化特征不一致,表现为NO_x、SO₂、O₃浓度有明显日变化,而PM浓度升高后一直维持在高值,日变化幅度很小。通过分析不同站点、相同污染物之间的相关性和变异系数发现,4站点间一次污染物NO和SO₂空间浓度差别大,变异系数分别为77%和70%,相关系数低于0.44;而二次污染物NO₂、PM2.5、O₃空间浓度差别较小,变异系数分别为34%、36%和29%,相关系数均超过0.54。结合中尺度气象模式研究发现,该污染过程中,850 hPa高空持续的西南暖平流造成华北地区显著平流逆温,与近地层辐射逆温共同作用,使北京地区混合层高度维持在1200 m以下。低混合层高度和低风速限制了大气垂直和水平扩散,造成北京地区近地层污染物累积,形成重度污染。     

中国实施铁路电气化的节能减排量估算

基于中国铁路部门逐年统计数据,计算了1975-2007年中国电气化铁路带来的逐年节能量和CO2、烟尘、SO2、CO、NOx与CnHm的直接减排量,并分析了其变化特点.结果表明,33年来电气化铁路使得中国铁路运输行业年均节省123.0万t标准煤的能源消耗,节能量年均增长13.9万t标准煤;CO2、烟尘、SO2、CO、NO...     

Analytical electron microscope studies of size-segregated particles collected during AGASP-II,flights 201–203

Cascade impactor samples were collected over the Alaskan Arctic during the first three research flights of AGASP-II. These samples were analyzed using analytical electron microscopy to determine the morphology, mineralogy and elemental composition of individual particles. For analytical considerations, a typical impactor sample was run for approximately 20 min, thus giving excellent time resolution of discrete events.Samples collected during flights 201 and 202 consisted of stratospheric aerosol and lower-altitude haze samples. Stratospheric samples were characterized by moderate loadings of H₂SO₄ droplets with relatively few particles of other types. Samples collected in tropospheric haze layers generally exhibited light-to-moderate particle loadings. H₂SO₄ was again the most prevalent species, with crustal and anthropogenic particles also observed. One sample taken over south-central Alaska near the end of flight 203 showed high concentrations of solid crustal particles, with relatively little associated H₂SO₄. Giant particles larger than 5 m were occasionally observed in this aerosol. The composition of this material closely matches that of bulk ash from the Mt. Augustine volcano, which erupted 9–13 days before collection of this sample. This brings forth the possibility that pockets of ash-rich aerosol existed over parts of south and central Alska during the AGASP-II field mission. There is no evidence that these volcanic aerosols were present in the AGASP study area north of the Brooks Range.     

Fog and rain water chemistry at Mt. Fuji: A case study during the September 2002 campaign

Measurements of fog and rain water chemistry at the summit of Mt. Fuji, the highest peak in Japan, as well as at Tarobo, the ESE slope of Mt. Fuji in September 2002. The pH of fog and rain water sampled at Mt. Fuji varied over a range of 4.0–6.8. Acidic fogs (pH < 5.0) were observed at the summit when the air mass came from the industrial regions on the Asian continent. The ratio of [SO₄²⁻]/[NO₃⁻] in the fog water was lower at Tarobo than at the summit. High concentrations of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ were determined in the rain water sampled at the summit, possibly because of the long-range transport of sea-salt particles raised by a typhoon through the middle troposphere. The vertical transport of sea-salt particles would influence the cloud microphysical properties in the middle troposphere. Significant loss of Mg²⁺ was seen in the rain water at the summit. The concentrations of peroxides in the fog and rain water were relatively large (10–105 μM). The potential capacity for SO₂ oxidation seems to be strong from summer to early autumn at Mt. Fuji. The fog water peroxide concentrations displayed diurnal variability. The peroxide concentrations in the nighttime were significantly higher than those in the daytime.     

Accelerated plate motion and rates of volcanicity as controls on Archean climates

Although vulcanicity is seen as a possible mechanism of climatic change, under present rates of eruptions it is difficult to envisage volcanic activity acting independently of other factors in causing significant and lasting global climate changes. This note considers the global plate-tectonic regime which may have prevailed during the Archean, and which, as a consequence, should have resulted in rates of volcanic eruptions significantly higher than at present. From this would follow atmospheric CO₂ levels significantly higher than those which prevail today. In this note we attempt to establish a link between the Archean global plate-tectonic regime and the high atmospheric CO₂ levels which are thought to have existed at that time.     

Ensemble retrieval of atmospheric temperature profiles from AIRS

ABSTRACT Satellite-based observations provide great opportunities for improving weather forecasting. Physical retrieval of atmo spheric profiles from satellite observations is sensitive to the uncertainty of the first guess and other factors. In order to improve the accuracy of the physical retrieval, an ensemble methodology was developed with an emphasis on perturbing the first guess. In the methodology, a normal probability density function （PDF） is used to select the optimal profile from the ensemble retrievals. The ensemble retrieval algorithm contains four steps： （1） regression retrieval for original first guess; （2） perturbation of the original first guess to generate new first guesses （ensemble first guesses）; （3） using the ensemble first guesses and nonlinear iterative physical retrieval to generate ensemble physical results; and （4） the final optimal profile is selected from the ensemble physical results by using PDE Temperature eigenvectors （EVs） were used to generate the pertur- bation and generate the ensemble first guess. Compared with the regular temperature profile retrievals from the Atmospheric InfraRed Sounder （AIRS）, the ensemble retrievals RMSE of temperature profiles selected by the PDF was reduced between 150 and 320 hPa and below 400 hPa, with a maximum improvement of 0.3 K at 400 hPa. The bias was also reduced in many layers, with a maximum improvement of 0.69 K at 460 hPa. The combined optimal （CombOpt） profile and a mean optimal （MeanOpt） profile of all ensemble physical results were improved below 150 hPa. The MeanOpt profile was better than the CombOpt profile, and was regarded as the final optimal （FinOpt） profile. This study lays the foundation for improving temperature retrievals from hyper-spectral infrared radiance measurements.     

The influence of volcanic, solar and CO2 forcing on the temperatures in the Dalton Minimum (1790–1830): a model study

The Dalton Minimum (1790–1830) was a period with reduced solar irradiance and strong volcanic eruptions. Additionally, the atmospheric CO₂ concentrations started to rise from the background level of previous centuries. In this period most empirical climate reconstructions indicate a minimum in global or hemispheric temperatures. Here, we analyse several simulations starting in 1755 with the coupled atmosphere-ocean model ECHO-G driven by different forcing combinations to investigate which external forcing could have contributed most strongly to the reduced temperatures during the Dalton Minimum. Results indicate that on global and hemispheric scales, the volcanic forcing is largely responsible for the temperature drop in this period, especially during its second half, whereas changes in solar forcing and the increasing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations were of minor importance. At regional scales, especially the extratropical, the impact of volcanic forcing is much less discernible due to the large regional variability, a finding that agrees with empirical temperature reconstructions.     

Raindrop Size Distribution Parameters Retrieved from Guangzhou S-band Polarimetric Radar Observations

According to the statistical shape–slope (μ–Λ) relationship observed for the first time by several 2D-Video-Distrometers (2DVD) in southern China, a constrained gamma (C-G) model was proposed for the retrieval of rain drop size distributions (DSDs) from Guangzhou S-band polarimetric radar observations. Two typical precipitation processes were selected to verify the accuracy of the retrieval scheme. The μ–Λ relationship: Λ = 0.0241μ² + 0.867μ + 2.453 was obtained based on the 2DVD observation results from at Huizhou Longmen station, which is a very representative location in the area. Relying on the Guangzhou polarimetric radar measurements of radar reflectivity (Z_HH) and differential reflectivity (Z_DR), the gamma (Γ) size distribution parameters (N₀, μ, and Λ) can be retrieved by the C-G model retrieval scheme. The results show that the Guangzhou polarimetric radar retrievals of DSDs were close to the 2DVD observations at Guangzhou Maofengshan station. The rain rate, mass mean diameter, and normalized intercept parameter of radar retrievals were in good agreement with the 2DVD observations, and the relative errors were less than 10%. The overall accuracy of the retrieval scheme was high. The retrieval scheme has established the relationship between the polarimetric radar measurements and gamma size distribution parameters. It will be helpful to in-depth research and application of the dual-polarization radar data in microphysical precipitation processes analysis, as well as convection-resolved numerical model data assimilation and prediction effect evaluation.     

Variations of Total Nitrogen Oxide Content in the Atmosphere over the North Caucasus

The data are presented on total nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) content in the atmosphere from 1979 to 2009 at the high-mountain scientific station located in the unpolluted area in the North Caucasus at the height of 2070 m above the sea level (43.7° N, 42.7° E). The total content of NO₂ was measured on the basis of attenuation of direct solar radiation over slope pathways after the sunrise and before the sunset. Characteristics features are analyzed of temporal variability of total NO₂ content in the atmosphere related to its diurnal and seasonal variations, 11-year solar activity, volcanic eruptions, quasi-biennial oscillations of tropical circulation, and the El Niño effect.     

A 1-D modelling of climatic and chemical effects of greenhouse gases

Summary A coupled 1-D time-dependent radiative-convective-photochemical diffusion model which extends from the surface to 60 km is used to investigate the potential impact of greenhouse trace gas emissions on long-term changes in global climate, atmospheric ozone and surface UV-B radiation, taking into accoont the influence of aerosol loading into the atmosphere from major volcanic eruptions, of thermal inertia of the upper mixed layer of the ocean and of other radiativephotochemical feedback mechanisms. Experiments are carried out under global and annual average insolation and cloudiness conditions. The transient calculations are made for three different growth scenarios for increase in trace gas concentrations. Scenario 1, which begins in 1850, uses the best estimate values for future trace gas concentrations of CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, CFC-11, CFC-12 and tropospheric O₃, based on current observational trends. Scenarios 2 and 3, which begin in 1990, assume lower and upper ranges, respectively, of observed growth rates to estimate future concentrations.The transient response of the model for Scenario 1 suggests that surface warming of the ocean mixed layer of about 1 K should have taken place between 1850 and 1990 due to a combined increase of atmospheric CO₂ and other trace gases. For the three scenarios considered in this study, the cumulative surface warming induced by all major trace gases for the period 1850 to 2080 ranges from 2.7 K to 8.2 K with the best estimate value of 5 K. The results indicate that the direct and the indirect chemistry-climate interactions of non-CO₂ trace gases contribute significantly to the cumulative surface warming (up to 65% by the year 2080). The thermal inertia of a mixed layer of the ocean is shown to have the effect of delaying equilibrium surface warming by almost three decades with an e-folding time of about 5 years. The volcanic aerosols which would result from major volcanic eruptions play a significant role by interrupting the long-term greenhouse surface warming trend and replacing it by a temporary cooling on a time scale of a decade or less. Furthermore, depending on the scenario used, a reduction in the net ozone column could result in an increase in the solar UV-B radiation at the surface by as much as 300% towards the end of 21st century.With 14 Figures     

Analysis of summertime atmospheric transport of fine particulate matter in Northeast Asia

In Northeast Asia, the effect of long-range transport of air pollutants is generally pronounced in spring and winter, but can be important even in summer. This study analyzed summer-time atmospheric transport of elemental carbon (EC) and sulfate (SO₄ ^2?) with the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model driven by the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. The WRF/CMAQ modeling system was applied to regions ranging from Northeast Asia to the Greater Tokyo Area in Japan in summer 2007. In terms of EC, while the model simulated well the effect of long-range transport, the simulation results indicated that domestic emissions in Japan dominantly contributed (85%) to EC concentrations in the Greater Tokyo. In terms of SO₄ ^2?, the simulation results indicated that both domestic emissions (62%) and long-range transport from the other countries (38%) substantially contributed to SO₄ ^2? concentrations in the Greater Tokyo. Distinctive transport processes of SO₄ ^2? were associated with typical summer-time meteorological conditions in the study region. When a Pacific high-pressure system covered the main island of Japan, domestic emissions, including volcanic emission, dominantly contributed to SO₄ ^2? concentrations in the Greater Tokyo. When a high-pressure system prevailed over the East China Sea and low-pressure systems passed north of Japan, synoptic westerly winds associated with this pressure pattern transported a large amount of SO₄ ^2? from the continent to Japan. In addition, although heavy precipitation and strong wind decreased SO₄ ^2? concentrations near the center of a typhoon, peripheral typhoon winds occasionally played an important role in long-range transport of SO₄ ^2?.     

Uncertainty and sensitivity analyses of OH-initiated dimethyl sulphide (DMS) oxidation kinetics

A numerical experiment has been conducted on the OH-initiated tropospheric oxidation of DMS. This involved the selection of a set of reactions describing the OH-initiated oxidation kinetics and the conversion of the present level of uncertainty of the system into uncertainty ranges and distributions for the relevant system parameters (kinetic constants and initial concentrations). Uncertainties have been propagated through the model onto the output variables of interest. This has allowed (a) the uncertainty in model prediction to be quantified and compared with observations (uncertainty analysis) and (b) the relative importance of each input parameter in determining the output uncertainty to be quantified (sensitivity analysis). Output considered were the ratio of MSA/(SO₂ + H₂SO₄) concentration at a given time, the ratio SO₂/H₂SO₄, the total peroxynitrate species concentrations and the relative fraction of SO₂ and H₂SO₄ formed through the various pathways. Conditional upon the model and data assumptions underlying the experiment, the following main conclusions were drawn:

1. The possibility of direct formation of SO₃ without SO₂ as intermediate as suggested by Bandyet al. (1992) and Yinet al. (1990), involving direct thermal decomposition of CH₃SO₃ · does not seem to play a major role in the overall generation of sulphate. This is relevant to the issue of gas to particle conversion over remote areas.
2. Reaction of CH₃SOO · intermediate may be the most important pathway to the formation of SO₂.
3. The dominating peroxynitrate is CH₃S(O)₂O₂NO₂.

Through sensitivity analysis the kinetic constants have been identified which — because of their uncertainty and of their impact on the output — mostly contribute to the output uncertainty.     

近40年中国高空温度变化的初步分析

为了了解高空气温的长期变化趋势,利用中国28个高空探空站1961—2000年间地面至高空10hPa的温度资料进行了统计分析,结果表明:从地面到高空200hPa最冷在1月,最热在7月;但是在最冷的100hPa层以上,其气温年变化位相相反,即1月最热,8月最冷;50hPa层以上温度的年变化不大。近40余年来,年平均气温变化趋势自地面至700hPa,绝大部分地区温度上升,尤其是地面增温最为显著,而西南地区有降温趋势;对流层上层至50hPa的平流层的温度在降低,尤其是50hPa降温最为显著。北半球的较强火山喷发对中国32°N以南的低纬与32°N以北的中高纬地区高空温度的影响不同。火山喷发后,低纬地区平流层第1~26个月温度均有不同程度增温,其中在第7~8个月增温最明显;在对流层以下,第6~11个月、第16~27个月出现2次明显降温时段,第1次降温最明显。中高纬地区平流层在第1~16个月、第20~29个月出现2段增温,第1段增温时间跨度长、强度大,第17~19个月出现了降温。在对流层以下第2~5个月、第14~18个月、第21~30个月出现3次明显降温时段,第3次降温持续时间长,整体降温强度较大。