Inextensible reinforcement on non‐linear elasto‐plastic subgrade under oblique pull

In this paper, a rational analysis of pullout resistance of inextensible sheet reinforcement subjected to oblique end force has been presented considering a non‐linear (hyperbolic), elasto‐plastic, normal stress–displacement relationship of the subgrade. Under an oblique pull, high normal stresses develop on stronger subgrades, thus mobilizing high shearing resistance at the reinforcement–soil interface. The higher the bearing resistance of the subgrade, the higher the horizontal component of pullout force and the lower the end displacement of the reinforcement. On the other hand, the end displacement at pullout can become very high for weaker subgrades especially at high values of the angle of obliquity. Also, the pullout capacity under oblique loading for weaker subgrades may approach or even fall below the axial pullout capacity at high values of the angle of obliquity. These adverse pullout responses owing to a low value of bearing resistance of subgrade are magnified when the subgrade stiffness is also small. On weaker subgrades, improvement in angle of interface shear is not advisable as this leads to further reduction in the pullout force and increase in the end displacement. Results are compared with back analysis of published test data on model reinforced soil walls. The comparison suggests that the present model leads to a more rational and better prediction of the pullout failure. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

UPPER BOUND SOLUTION FOR PULLOUT CAPACITY OF ANCHORS ON SANDY SLOPES

By making use of limit analysis, an upper bound solution in a closed form for determining the ultimate pullout capacity of plate anchors buried in sandy slopes has been established. The anchor plate orientation has been considered either horizontal or parallel to the slope, with the pullout force applied perpendicular to the plate. It has been found that the pullout capacity for horizontal anchors, even on slopes, remains the same as that on horizontal ground surface as long as the average embedment ratio is kept constant. Whereas for anchors which are aligned parallel to the slope the collapse load decreases continuously with the increase in the inclination of slope. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

吸力式沉箱基础极限拉拔承载力的数值分析

作为新型的深水海洋基础型式,吸力式沉箱基础被广泛地用于系泊深水海洋设施中,从而承受巨大的倾斜上拔荷载。在上拔荷载水平分量与竖向分量的共同作用下,吸力式沉箱的承载特性及其工作性能评价是海洋工程设计与建设中的关键技术问题之一。然而现有的理论分析与试验研究并不能满足工程实践的需要,因此,对吸力式沉箱基础的极限承载力分析建立了有限元数值计算方法。当沉箱基础在快速拔出过程中,正常固结黏土处于完全不排水状态,沉箱基础发生整体破坏时表现出反向地基承载力失稳模式,此时沉箱基础所发挥的极限承载能力往往最大。为此,在数值计算中直接假定沉箱基础及其周围土体处于完全不排水状态,针对不同的沉箱长径比,分别确定了在竖向上拔荷载和水平拉拔的单独作用下沉箱基础极限承载力。对比发现：竖向上拔极限承载力有限元解能够较好地与理论计算结果相符合,而水平极限承载力解与理论计算结果存在一定的差异。     

自由段先注浆对预应力锚索抗拔试验结果影响研究

为了解决无法采用已注浆锚索进行抗拔试验问题,基于界面脱黏剪切模型,利用荷载传递和弹性变形理论,考虑锚索锚固段与自由段长度比Lb /La的影响,建立了采用自由段已注浆锚索抗拔试验结果评价锚索抗拔性能的方法。结果表明：自由段注浆对锚索抗拔力有较大幅度的提高,尤其是当界面剪切阶段由弹性向脱黏过渡时,提高比例快速增加,并在脱黏后逐渐趋于稳定。其次,锚索自由段与锚固段交界面处剪切位移和轴力最大,并向两端逐渐降低。随着拉拔力的提高,界面剪切位移和轴力都不断增大,同时向锚索两端的衰减速度也加快。此外,弹性阶段时剪应力曲线为山峰型,而脱黏阶段为马鞍型,并随抗拔力的提高,马鞍开口逐渐扩大。最后,锚固段与自由段长度比Lb /La对锚索极限抗拔力的影响较小,其极限抗拔力折减系数?Q取值介于0.81～0.83之间,且Lb /La =2.5时,?Q计算值仅比实测结果小6.02%,验证了本文方法的可行性。     

An Innovative Post Grouting Technique for Soil Nails

This study presents an innovative technique of executing soil nails called sectorized post grouting (SPG). The most utilized technique of soil nail grouting is gravity grouting, with the literature reporting advances in pressurized grouting. Although obtaining higher pullout resistance of soil nails, pressurized grouting, mostly done in single-stage grouting, does not compensate for exudation and its use in higher nail lengths is difficult. Thus, a technique has been developed that compensates for exudation, with easier application in lengthier nails. The technique was qualitatively assessed to evaluate its surface roughness and later applied in seven real soil nailing works, where it could be quantitatively assessed. The results show that sectorized post-grouted nails obtained greater pullout resistances than gravity grouted and single-stage grouted nails. Although similar improvement was found in tube-à-manchette (TAM) grouted nails, this method presents lower economic efficiency than sectorized post grouting. The pullout resistance results obtained in this study can be utilized in future soil nailing works executed utilizing SPG.

     

Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) calibration for steel grid reinforced soil walls

This paper reports the results of load and resistance factor design (LRFD) calibration for pullout and yield limit states for steel grid reinforced soil walls owing to soil self-weight loading plus permanent uniform surcharge. The calibration method uses bias statistics to account for prediction accuracy of the underlying deterministic models for reinforcement load, pullout capacity and yield strength of the steel grids, and random variability in input parameters. A new revised pullout design model is proposed to improve pullout resistance prediction accuracy and to remove hidden dependency with calculated pullout resistance values. Load and resistance factors are proposed that give a uniform probability of failure of 1% for both pullout and yield limit states. The approach adopted in this paper has application to a wide variety of other reinforced soil wall technologies.     

The effect of pressure-grouted soil nails on the stability of weathered soil slopes

Pressure-grouted soil nails have been increasingly used for stabilizing slopes. The pullout resistance of a soil nail is the main factor for reinforcing the slope stability. In this study, a two-dimensional axisymmetric finite element model is developed to simulate the pullout behavior of a pressure-grouted soil nail. This model is verified with field pullout tests result of a pressure-grouted soil nails by comparing with gravity-grouted soil nails. Based on the analysis, a three-dimensional finite element model is proposed for stability analysis of a slope reinforced with pressure-grouted soil nails using the shear strength reduction method. A series of numerical slope stability analyses for a slope composed of weathered soil are performed to investigate the effects of grouting pressure on the slope stability and the behavior of the soil nails. Special attention is given to the installation effect of a pressure-grouted soil nails. It is found from the result of this study that the pressure-grouted soil nails increase the safety factor by fifty percent in a slope by increasing the stiffness of the nailed slope system. Numerical analysis results confirm the fact that the pullout resistance of a soil nail is the main factor for stabilizing slopes rather than the shear resistance of the soil nail.     

Seismic Pullout Capacity of Inclined Anchor Plates in Sand

By using the lower bound finite elements limit analysis, the pullout capacity of an inclined strip anchor plate embedded in a cohesionless soil medium has been computed with an inclusion of pseudo-static horizontal earthquake body forces. The variation of the pullout capacity factor (F _γ ) with changes in horizontal earthquake acceleration co-efficient (α _h ) has been computed by varying the inclination angle (β) of the anchor plate between 0° and 90°. The results clearly reveal that the pullout capacity factor (F _γ ) decreases significantly with an increase in the value of α _h . The reduction in the pullout resistance due to seismic forces (1) becomes much more extensive for a vertical anchor plate as compared to the horizontal anchor, (2) decreases generally with increases in the soil friction angle (?) and (3) increases with an increase in friction angle between soil and anchor plate (δ). The developments of the failure zone around the anchor plate were also examined by varying α _h and β. The results obtained from the analysis compare well with the solutions reported in literature.     

斜坡浅埋水平条形锚板抗拔承载力的极限分析

针对山区和丘陵等复杂地形下浅埋锚板抗拔承载力计算问题,基于极限分析上限定理、非线性Mohr-Coulomb强度准则及其关联流动法则,构造了斜坡浅埋水平条形锚板的曲线型破裂机制和机动许可速度场,采用变分极值原理获得了其上方土体破裂面方程和抗拔承载力的上限解,分析了斜坡倾角和锚板埋深对锚板抗拔承载力的影响。结果表明:随着斜坡倾角的增大,锚板抗拔承载力逐渐减小,此时其上方两侧土体破裂面不再对称且整体向下坡侧偏移;锚板抗拔承载力及其上方两侧土体破裂面宽度均随着埋深增大而增加;锚板埋深越小,斜坡倾角对其抗拔承载力的影响越大,应在计算中予以考虑,以更合理地反映斜坡浅埋水平条形锚板的抗拔承载特性。     

Reliability Based Earthquake Resistant Design for Internal Stability of Reinforced Soil Structures

This paper presents a method to evaluate reliability for internal stability of reinforced soil structures using reliability based design optimization. Using limit equilibrium method and assuming the failure surface to be logarithmic spiral, analysis is conducted to maintain internal stability against both tensile and pullout failure of the reinforcements. Properties of backfill soil and strength of the geosynthetic reinforcement are considered as random variables. For the seismic conditions, reliability indices of all the geosynthetic layers in relation to tension and pullout failure modes are determined for different magnitudes of seismic accelerations both in the horizontal and vertical directions, surcharge load and design strength of the reinforcement. The efforts have been made to obtain the number of layers, pullout length and total length of the reinforcement at each level for the desired target reliability index values against tension and pullout modes of failure. The influence of horizontal and vertical earthquake acceleration, surcharge load, design strength of the reinforcement, coefficient of variation of soil friction angle and design strength of the reinforcement on number of layers, pullout length and total length of the reinforcement needed for the stability at each level is discussed.     

Pseudo Static Seismic Stability Analysis of Reinforced Soil Structures

The paper pertains to the pseudo-static seismic stability analysis of reinforced soil structures. Using limit equilibrium method and assuming the failure surface to be logarithmic spiral, analysis has been conducted to maintain internal stability against both tensile and pullout failure of the reinforcements. The external stability of the reinforced earth wall is also assessed in terms of its sliding, overturning, eccentricity and bearing modes of failure. The influence of the intensity of the surcharge load placed on the backfill is also considered in the analysis. The obtained results are validated by comparing the same with those reported in literature. Studies have also been made regarding the influence of backfill soil friction angle, horizontal and vertical seismic accelerations, surcharge load, the tensile strength of reinforcement, pullout length of the reinforcement and number of reinforcement layers on the seismic stability against various failure modes as mentioned earlier.     

带加强肋土工格栅的极限拉拔阻力分析

在立体加筋体系研究基础上,提出了带加强肋土工格栅加筋,即通过对普通土工格栅的肋进行加强处理,使其肋具有一定的竖向厚度,构成具有立体加筋效果的带加强肋土工格栅。采用染色砂法,通过带加强肋土工格栅的拉拔试验进行了拉拔力机理分析。在拉拔过程中,加强肋前方土体会首先被挤密加强,成为一个刚性的楔体,然后刚性楔与筋材一起运动成为一个土筋共同体。推导了带加强肋土工格栅加筋土的拉拔阻力模型,分析中将加强肋的侧阻力作用简化为侧向土压力的作用,采用极限平衡理论,通过两侧的主动土压力与被动土压力进行计算。根据所建立的拉拔阻力模型计算出带加强肋土工格栅加筋的极限拉拔阻力,并与试验结果进行了对比,两者基本吻合     

细砂中钢带-填土废塑料瓶抗拔性能试验研究

研究利用填土废塑料瓶作为横向构件附在加筋土挡墙（MSEWs）中钢带上可行性。配筋中的横向构件对增加抗拔力有重要影响。该加筋系统是由作为纵向构件的钢带和作为横向构件的填土废塑料瓶组成。为更好地研究以填土废塑料瓶作为横向构件对抗拔性能的影响,对一条独立的钢带和分别带有1～7个瓶子的钢带进行了拉拔试验。在不同的法向应力下进行了超过18次的实验室大型拉拔试验（例如拉拔箱尺寸为长1.2 m、宽0.6 m、高1.0 m）来评估新提出的加固元件的性能。试验结果表明,在扁钢带上建立三维空间对提高抗拔阻力影响很大。提高抗拔阻力最有效的方法是在距离S与直径D之比为3的钢带上加入4个横向构件,其平均抗拔阻力约为单独钢带的5倍。有横向构件和无横向构件钢带的极限抗拔阻力随竖向应力的增大而增大。     

Seismic uplift capacity of strip anchors in soil

Uplift capacity of horizontal strip anchors in soil embedded under an inclined ground surface has been obtained under seismic conditions. Limit equilibrium approach with logspiral failure surface together with pseudo-static seismic forces has been adopted. The results have been presented in the form of seismic uplift capacity factors as functions of ground inclination, embedment ratio, angle of internal friction of the soil and seismic acceleration coefficients. The uplift capacity factors have been worked out separately for cohesion, surcharge and density components. Effect of the vertical seismic acceleration coefficient has been found to always reduce the uplift capacity whereas the effect of horizontal seismic acceleration coefficient has been found to reduce the uplift capacity in most of the cases. The obtained results of seismic uplift capacity factors are found to be the minimum when compared with the results available in literature on the basis of planar failure surface. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Analysis of geocell-reinforced mattress with consideration of horizontal–vertical coupling

Geocell reinforcement has been increasingly applied to road embankment engineering. Deformation calculation is one of the major concerns during the design process. In this paper, the power-series method was employed to investigate the performance of a geocell-reinforced mattress under symmetric loads. The geocell-reinforced mattress was idealized as a beam on a Winkler foundation. In the analysis, the soil–foundation beam interface resistance, related to the horizontal deformation coupling with the vertical deformation, was considered. Semi-analytic solutions were developed to assess the deformations and internal forces of the foundation beam and verified against an existing finite element method [9]. The results of the proposed method were close to the results from the finite element method. Moreover, the effects of various factors, such as height of embankment, horizontal and vertical foundation coefficients, composite elastic modulus and height of geocell-reinforced mattress, on the foundation beam settlement and the tension force within the beam are discussed. It was found that the interface resistance related to the horizontal deformation of the beam has a reduction effect on the embankment settlement, and it is beneficial to reduce the embankment settlement by increasing the beam rigidity and strengthening the subgrade soil body.     

Pullout Response of Uniaxial Geogrid in Tire Shred–Sand Mixtures

Use of tire shred–soil mixtures as backfill materials in mechanically stabilized earth walls has several advantages over other backfill materials: (1) good drainage, (2) high shear strength, and (3) low compacted unit weight. This paper presents the results of laboratory pullout tests performed on uniaxial geogrid embedded in tire shred–sand mixtures. The effects of tire shred size, tire shred–sand mixing ratio and confining pressure on the interaction between the geogrid and tire shred–sand mixtures are evaluated. Three sizes of tire shreds are considered: tire chips (with 9.5 mm nominal size), tire shreds 50-to-100 mm long and tire shreds 100-to-200 mm in length, with mixing ratios of 0, 12, 25 and 100 % of tire shreds in the mixtures (by weight). Based on compaction testing of a number of mixtures, the optimal mixing proportion of tire shreds and sand was found to lie between 25/75 and 30/70 (by weight of tire shred and sand); this is equivalent to approximately 40/60 and 50/50, respectively, by volume of tire shreds and sand. The pullout resistance of a geogrid embedded in tire shred–sand mixtures is significantly higher than that of the same geogrid embedded in tire shreds only. The size of the tire shreds has negligible effect on the pullout resistance of a geogrid embedded in mixtures prepared with either low (12/88 mix) or high (100/0 mix) tire shred content. However, when the 25/75 mixture is used, greater geogrid pullout resistance was obtained for the geogrid embedded in tire chip–sand mixtures than in tire shred–sand mixtures.     

上覆压力和剪胀作用下土钉抗拔的有限元模拟

灌浆土钉在边坡加固工程中有着广泛的应用。土钉在不同条件下的抗拔机制仍是进一步研究的课题。通过建立一个三维有限元模型,研究土钉在不同上覆压力和剪胀作用下的土钉抗拔行为。采用摩尔-库仑模型模拟花岗岩土,土与土钉界面采用“接触对”和库仑摩擦模型描述。模型可以模拟土钉发生较大抗拔位移下发生滑移破坏的过程。模型参数通过三轴试验结果进行校正。通过与大尺寸室内抗拔试验结果相比较,验证了模型的有效性。模型展现了土钉在钻孔后和抗拔过程中土钉周围的土压力的变化。最后通过参数分析,研究了上覆压力和剪胀对土钉抗拔力的影响。结果显示,当上覆压力较小时,剪胀角对抗拔应力的影响较小。随着上覆压力的增加,剪胀角对抗拔应力的影响变得更加明显。     

Horizontal Pullout Capacity of a Group of Two Vertical Strip Anchors Plates Embedded in Sand

The horizontal pullout capacity of a group of two vertical strip anchor plates placed along the same vertical plane in sand, has been determined by using the lower bound finite element limit analysis. The effect of vertical spacing (S) between the anchor plates on the magnitude of the total group horizontal failure load (P_uT) has been determined for different combinations of H/B, δ/ϕ and ϕ. The magnitude of P_uT has been obtained in terms of a group efficiency factor, η_γ, with respect to the failure load for a single vertical plate with the same H/B. The magnitude of η_γ becomes maximum corresponding to a certain critical S/B, which has been found to lie between 0.5 and 0.8. The value of η_γ for a given S/B has been found to become larger for greater values of H/B, ϕ, and δ.     

The ultimate uplift capacity of multi-plate strip anchors in undrained clay

Soil anchors are commonly used as foundation systems for structures requiring uplift resistance such as transmission towers, or for structures requiring lateral resistance, such as sheet pile walls. Anchors commonly have more than one plate or bearing element and therefore there is a complex interaction between adjacent plates due to overlapping stress zones. This interaction will affect the failure mode and ultimate capacity. However, no thorough numerical analyses have been performed to determine the ultimate pullout loads of multi-plate anchors. By far the majority of the research has been directed toward the tensile uplift behaviour of single anchors (only one plate). The primary aim of this research paper is to use numerical modelling techniques to better understand plane strain multi-plate anchor foundation behaviour in clay soils. A practical design framework for multi-plate anchor foundations will be established to replace existing semi-empirical design methods that are inadequate and have been found to be excessively under or over conservative. This framework can then be used by design engineers to more confidently estimate the pullout capacity of multi-plate anchors under tension loading.     

风积沙地基装配式偏心基础抗拔试验研究

在毛乌素沙漠中开展装配式偏心基础在上拔、上拔+水平力组合荷载作用下的现场试验研究。根据试验加载过程中监测的基础顶部位移、地表竖向位移及基础底板土压力数据,分析基础顶部的荷载-位移特性,研究装配式偏心基础的抗拔承载机制。结果表明,（1）在上拔、上拔和水平力组合作用下,基础顶部上拔和水平位移曲线均呈二阶段的承载特性;（2）当仅受上拔荷载作用时,基础偏心引起的附加弯矩,使得基础底板产生偏转,基础及底板上覆部分沙土自重抵抗上拔荷载,而在上拔和水平力组合荷载工况下,基础偏心引起的附加弯矩小,与上拔荷载工况相比,基础极限抗拔承载力提高8.7％,即在组合荷载工况下装配式偏心基础能够发挥更多的沙土来抵抗上拔荷载;（3）根据装配式偏心基础的抗拔承载机制,引入外荷载合力作用线与支架作用线之间的夹角δ来反映水平荷载对装配式基础抗拔破坏因子的影响,其影响规律为装配式基础的抗拔破坏因子随δ增加而降低。