Determination of horizontal extension from fissure-ridge travertines: a case study from the Denizli Basin,southwestern Turkey

Travertine deposits reflect some aspects of the regional tectonics because of the close association between travertine deposits and active fractures, that later of which provide conduits along which travertine-depositing waters may rise. Fissure-ridge travertines form above extensional fissures which are located in the hanging walls of normal faults, in step-over zones between fault segments, or in active or recently active) volcanic provinces. Numerous active and inactive fissure-ridge travertines are located in the hanging walls of normal faults in the Denizli Basin. A typical fissure-ridge comprises a central fissure along its long axis and flanking bedded travertines dipping away from the fissure. Central fissures of travertine ridges have been dilating since the initiation of the fissures. Samples from both the margins and centres of banded travertine deposits were dated by Th/U methods in order to determine dilation rates. Individual fissures have been dilating at average rates of between 0.008 and 0.1 mm yr^–1 during travertine deposition, and ~ 0.001 and 0.007 mm yr^–1 after cessation of travertine deposition. There is a noticable decrease in dilation rate from west to east in the Denizli Basin, and this decrease in dilation rate may be related to decrease in overall extension in southwest Turkey, which decreases eastward.     

Travitonics: using travertines in active fault studies

Late Quaternary travertines deposited from hot springs can reveal much about the neotectonic attributes and histories of structures. On the basis of field studies in the Aegean region (Turkey and Greece), the northern Apennines (Italy) and the Basin and Range province (USA) we conclude that the following relationships are of predictive value: (i) travertine deposits are preferentially located along fracture traces, either immediately above extensional fissures or in the hanging walls of normal faults; (ii) the locations of many travertine fissure-ridge deposits coincide with step-over zones (relay ramps) between fault segments; networks of intersecting tensional fissures reflecting the complex strains experienced in such settings are probably responsible for enhancing hydrothermal flow; (iii) the morphology of travertine deposits overlying extensional fissures is controlled by the rheology of the underlying materials; tufa cones (towers, pinnacles) form on former and present lake floors where fissures underlie unconsolidated sediments, whereas fissure-ridges develop where fissures cut bedrocks at the surface; (iv) fissure-ridges comprise outwardly dipping bedded travertine flanking a central tensional fissure filled by vertically banded travertines; fissures can be used to infer local stretching directions; (v) where there are travertines datable by the U-series method it is possible to calculate time-averaged dilation and lateral propagation rates for individual fissures; (vi) most fissures cutting fissure-ridges comprise self-similar angular segments with fractal dimensions in the range 1.00–1.12, the properties of bedded travertine combined with stress perturbations at fissure tips probably being responsible for such similar fractal dimensions being inferred from such a wide range of locations. Fissures gradually increasing in width with depth are products of continuous fracture dilation in contrast to those that form during episodic dilation which display stepped increases of width with depth; (vii) travertine deposited from springs along fault zones accumulate in terraced-mounds sited down slope of the spring line; (viii) many post-depositional fractures cutting travertine deposits are locally oriented at right angles to deposit margins; and (ix) systematic joints in travertines are restricted to those parts of eroded sheet deposits that have been exhumed.     

Travertine deposition and faulting: the fault-related travertine fissure-ridge at Terme S. Giovanni,Rapolano Terme (Italy)

In this paper we describe an example of travertine fissure-ridge development along the trace of a normal fault with metre displacement, located in the eastern margin of the Neogene–Quaternary Siena Basin, in the Terme S. Giovanni area (Rapolano Terme, Italy). This morphotectonic feature, 250 m long, 30 m wide and 10 m high, formed from supersaturated hot waters (39.9°C) flowing from thermal springs aligned along the trace of the normal fault dissecting travertines not older than Late Pleistocene (24 ± 3 ka). A straight, continuous fissure with a maximum width of 20 cm occurs at the top of the ridge, along its crest. Hot fluids flow from cones mainly located at the extremities of the ridge, where travertine is depositing. The travertine fissure-ridge shows an asymmetrical profile since it buries the fault scarp. The difference in height of slopes corresponds to the vertical displacement of the normal fault. Fissuring of the recent travertine deposits along the strike of the crestal fissure, as well as recent hydrothermal circulation, lead us to believe that the Terme S. Giovanni normal fault may be currently active. On the whole, the Terme S. Giovanni fissure ridge can be defined as a travertine fault trace fissure-ridge, adding a helpful example for studying the relationship between faulting and travertine deposition.     

Evolution of Çamlık fissure-ridge travertines in the Başkale basin (Van,Eastern Anatolia)

Fissure-ridge travertines (FRTs) are of great importance for the determination and comparison of tectonic deformation in a region. The coeval development of these travertines with active fault zones supplies significant information about regional dynamics in terms of deformation pattern and evolution. In this paper, the characteristics of FRTs of the Ba?kale basin (eastern Turkey) and responsible regional tectonism are discussed for the first time. The Ba?kale basin is located between the Ba?kale Fault Zone (BFZ) characterised by Çaml?k fault and I??kl?–Zirani? fault. It is located between dextral Yüksekova Fault Zone and southern end of dextral Guilato–Siahcheshmeh–Khoy Fault system (Iran). Various morphological features indicating recent activity are exposed along the BFZ, including offsetting rivers, fissure-ridge travertine and fault scarps. The Çaml?k fissure-ridge travertine composing of three different depositions is observed along the eastern edge of the BFZ with approximately parallel orientations. The Çaml?k fissure-ridge travertine has been formed and developed on fault zone related to strike-slip or oblique movements. We explain how kinematic changes of faults can influence the fissure-ridge development.     

U/Th dating of fissure ridge travertines from the Kirsehir region (Central Anatolia Turkey): structural relations and implications for the Neotectonic development of the Anatolian block

Travertines exposed in several locations in Central Anatolia are the important lithological product for the interpretation of local neotectonics. The fissure-type travertines provide significant information about stress orientation during deposition. Two travertine masses cropping out in the Kirsehir region have been studied and dated by the U-series method to obtain new chronological constraints, determine dilation rates and contribute to studies on the recent tectonic evolution of the area. The Kusdili and Kayabasi travertine masses are located on the hanging wall of the Kirsehir Fault, similar to numerous fissure ridge banded travertine deposits which are inactive today in the region. While individual fissures of the Kusdili travertine mass (Late Pleistocene-Holocene) have been dilated at rates of between 0.303 and 0.386 mm yr–1 during deposition, the Kayabasi travertine mass (Late Pleistocene) produced measured dilation rates of between 0.136 and 0.187 mm yr–1. The central fissures, filled by banded travertine, roughly follow the ridge crests. While the ridge crest has a NNE-SSW trend in the Kayabasi travertine mass, the ridge crest of the Kusdili travertine mass shows a NE-SW trend. This difference may be related to the clockwise rotation of the stress tensors from Late Pleistocene to Late Pleistocene-Holocene in the region.     

Fossil findings from the Sıcak Çermik fissure ridge-type travertines and possible hominid tracks,Sivas, Central Turkey

S?cak Çermik (Sivas) is an important geothermal and recent travertine formation area in Central Anatolia. The majority of travertines found in the region comprise fissure-ridge type travertines according to morphological classification. At the location called Tepe Çermik within the travertine area, fill containing fossil bone fragments of Equus sp., Bovidae and other abundant animals formed within the fracture axis of a N–S striking fissure-ridge travertine developed under control of tectonic forces. The finds of these fossils in fissure-ridge travertines linked to tectonic forces indicates formation of a unique fossil environment created under the control of these forces. The Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Radiocarbon Dating analyses of fossils from the study area determined the fills were older than 43,000 years. The U/Th age of a sample from the most recently-formed banded travertine in the axis of the fracture was identified as 278,540 ± 18,436 years. As a result, the ages of fossils found within this fill are thought to be between 43,000 and 278,540 ± 18,436 years old. The high amount of perissodactyla and artiodactyla fossils found within fill in the axis of the fissure-ridge travertine probably indicates the presence of hominids who chose the region for hunting or settlement. The Equus sp. and Bovidae fossil samples found in the axis of the fracture indicate that in the dry and cold glacial period the paleogeography in a large portion of Anatolia comprised desert-like steppe.     

Active tectonics of the Ortaköy fissure-ridge-type travertines: implications for the Quaternary stress state of the neotectonic structures of the Central Anatolia,Turkey

Several geothermal fields are located in a NE-SW trend along a structural lineament around the Sivas basin; one of those is the Ortaköy travertines situated 83?km south-west of Sivas. There are eight fissure-ridge-type travertine localities in the area, although eroded-sheet-type travertines constitute many of the travertines of the region. By evaluating the rocks of the Late Miocene-Early Pliocene K?z?l?rmak Formation, it was determined that fissure axes developed within fissure-ridge-type travertines, and that the structural elements obtained from satellite images together with the fissures that form the fissure-ridge-type travertines are shear and tension fissures, and the NE-SW-oriented opening of the fissures, were a result of NW-SE-directed compression, which was also responsible for the formation of the Sivas Backthrust. Ground-penetrating radar studies have shown that the thickness of fissure fills within the fissure-ridge-type travertines of the Ortaköy geothermal field increase with depth, and that the hydrothermal fluids which brought about the formation of the travertines moved surfaceward via fissure systems. The results of U/Th radiometric dating indicate that the youngest travertine in the region is 17,761 (_?268/⁺²⁶⁹) years old and the oldest 128,286 (_?3537/⁺³⁶⁶²) years old. Using the widths of banded travertines within the fissure-ridge-type travertines as well as these age results, the opening rate of the Sivas Basin was determined to be .06 (_?.01/^+.05) mm/year.     

U/Th dating of the travertine deposited at transfer zone between two normal faults and their neotectonic significance: Cambazli fissure ridge travertines (the Gediz Graben-Turkey)

Abstract

The neotectonic characteristics of the travertines that outcrop near Cambazli Village to the west of the Gediz Graben in the Western Anatolia and the age determination of the travertine were carried out using the ²³⁰Th/^234,238U disequilibrium method. The Cambazli fissure ridge travertines represent the travertine depositions that develop at a transfer zone. The extent of these travertines is at NW-SE and NE-SW orientations and the ridge crest-trend of these travertines range between approximately 55° and 82° and they are located at an intersecting position. The evaluation of the fissure ridge travertine directions indicated that the compression stress that was responsible for the deposition of the Cambazli travertine was determined to be in the N-S orientation and the extensional stress was determined to be in the E-W orientation. The orientation of the dominant extension in Western Anatolia during the neotectonic period was N-S and this orientation is not in accordance with the directions of stress for the travertines. This situation indicates that the travertines were deposited along a transfer zone in N10W orientation between two normal faults. The travertines were determined to be active since the Upper Pleistocene as indicated by the age determination conducted using the ²³⁰Th/^234,238U disequilibrium method. The dilation rate of the travertines during dilation and the post-dilation period and the average dilation rate of the Cambazli travertines to the north of the Gediz Graben were calculated as 0.01–0.02 mm yr^?1 during deposition and as 0.05 mm yr^?1 during the post-dilation period. These dilation rates indicate lower tectonic activity along the northern ridge of the Gediz Graben than along the southern ridge.

© 2011 Lavoisier SAS. All rights reserved     

构造透镜体中成矿雏形断裂的形成过程

以应力-应变曲线峰值为界,岩石破坏可分为 2个阶段,前阶段发育为雏形断裂,后阶段发育成宏观断裂。雏形断裂是一种特殊的断裂形式,在自然界中少见宏观断裂。与宏观断裂不同的是,雏形断裂既无断层面,又无碎裂岩,仅由小（微）裂隙组成。裂隙通常互不连通,总体具优选方向,且集中成透镜状裂隙群。裂隙群中部裂隙最发育,往边部渐趋消失。透镜状裂隙群之间呈雁列式排布,易发育和保存于构造透镜体弱应变域中。主要变形机制有液压致裂和应力腐蚀。形成前经历过微裂隙闭合、弹性变形和微裂隙生长扩容 3个阶段。以 2个中型金矿床为实例,研究了这一新发现的成矿构造的地质特征,认为变形分解、液压致裂和构造泵吸三者相互耦合,在雏形断裂形成与成矿过程中发挥关键作用。雏形断裂发育阶段可以形成独立的工业矿体。     

同沉积断层研究综述

同沉积断层是沉积盆地最基本的地质构造形式,控制着盆地的空间展布、几何形态、沉积韵律以及油气储层的分布。结合国内外研究进展,本文从特征和分类、次生构造、研究方法、成因和演化理论等方面对同沉积断层的研究现状进行了总结和论述,认为同沉积断层的精细探测、定量评价和高精度模拟是今后研究的重点。基于一些构造地裂缝的发育特征和同沉积断层特点,提出了同沉积地裂缝的概念,并以西安地裂缝为例,阐述了同沉积地裂缝的特征,指出从同沉积作用出发研究地裂缝的发育模式、形成机制、破裂扩展效应以及影响带宽度是今后构造地裂缝研究的方向。     

钙华的形成环境与特征及在油气储集方向的探讨

钙华是一种特殊的化学或生物化学沉积,它们在大陆内部广泛地分布且含有重要的地质信息,是一种特殊的油气储集体。影响钙华沉积的因素复杂多样,在调研钙华的形成过程及分类的基础上,从气候环境、水文地质条件、水体物理化学条件、生物活动及构造活动五个方面讨论钙华形成的控制因素;并从沉积环境与模式、沉积速率等方面将新疆塔北地区的钙华与国外钙华沉积体进行类比,发现塔北钙华沉积体在温暖湿润的环境下表现出良好的季节性分层,五道班地区钙华在沉积时汇入了大量的陆源碎屑,受生物活动影响较大;硫磺沟地区的钙华沉积则是伴随断裂活动所形成热液上涌的产物。通过对比发现,塔北露头缝洞内充填的钙华内部孔隙发达、连通性较好,并有良好的含油显示,故钙华具备一定的储集能力。     

Evolution of Pleistocene travertine depositional system from terraced slope to fissure-ridge in a mixed travertine-alluvial succession (Jebel El Mida,Gafsa, southern Tunisia)

The Quaternary stratigraphic record of Jebel El Mida, composed of continental deposits, is a useful example of concomitant travertines and alluvial deposition in an extensional setting. Travertine deposition occurred in a faulted Pleistocene alluvial fan giving rise to seven (recognised) facies interfingering with five other alluvial ones. The travertine depositional events indicate a tectonically driven evolution from terraced slope (facies group FC1–FC6) to a travertine fissure ridge-type depositing phase (facies group of FC1–FC7). Interfingering between travertine and alluvial facies indicates the co-existence of adjacent and time-equivalent depositional environments. The travertine deposition resulted from deep origin hydrothermal fluids channelled along damaged rocks volumes associated to a regional fault system, named as the Gafsa Fault (GF). The travertine–terrigenous succession in Jebel El Mida highlights the major role played by the GF in controlling: (i) the hydrothermal fluid flow, still active as also indicated by the numerous thermal springs aligned along the fault zone; (ii) paleoflow directions, discharge locations, volume, rate and fluctuations of the water supply. The paleoclimatic correlation with adjacent localities reveals that, at that time, humid episodes could have contributed to the recharge of the hydrothermal system and to the deposition of alluvial sediments.     

地裂缝活动作用下地层应力和位移传递规律研究

以西安地裂缝典型地段为研究对象,建立基于实际地裂缝活动方式的地质力学模型,通过FLAC3D数值模拟,研究地裂缝活动作用下地层应力和位移传递规律。结果表明:地裂缝活动作用下,地表竖向沉降变形曲线近似呈反“S”形,表现出“牵引挠曲”现象,水平位移曲线出现明显波峰现象;随着地裂缝位错量的增大,地表竖向和水平位移均逐渐增大;基于地裂缝活动引起的地表变形平均倾斜值,确定了地裂缝带影响区范围为上盘21 m和下盘13 m。地裂缝活动引起两侧地层断距由深部到浅表部逐渐减小,具有明显的变形传递衰减特征,且地层断距随埋深的变化曲线可近似概化为一个四次多项式方程。地裂缝活动导致上盘地层出现应力降低区,下盘地层出现应力增强区,上盘应力降低区范围大于下盘应力增强区,且上、下盘应力变化范围随着位错量的增大均逐渐增大。地裂缝活动作用下地裂缝两侧地层应力影响区随地层埋深的增大而增大,其与埋深之间关系近似满足三次多项式方程。研究结果可为盆地断裂控制型地裂缝发育区的工程防灾减灾提供科学依据。     

Development characteristics and mechanisms of the Taigu–Qixian earth fissure group in the Taiyuan basin,China

Since the 1980s, increasing human activity and continuing over-exploitation of groundwater resources have caused the earth fissures in the rift basin in Shanxi, China, to enter an active phase. Buildings along these earth fissures have been seriously damaged. Four massive earth fissures that developed in the Taigu and Qixian areas of the eastern Taiyuan basin endanger the operational safety of the high-speed railway that passes through this region. Using field observations, measurements, and exploration, we determined that the four earth fissures are parallel to each other, have a northeast trend, and are separated by approximately equal distances. The rupture zones of these earth fissures are generally 10–50 m wide and are formed by the main fissures and secondary fissures. The width of the zone affected by the earth fissures is 20–50 m based on deformation and the damage done to buildings. These fissures formed on the Earth’s surface; their hanging walls are lower than their foot walls, forming normal faults; and the ground surface around the fissures exhibits ridges and depressions. The fissures are connected to deep hidden faults. The fault displacement increases with increasing depth, which is characteristic of syn-sedimentary faults. These earth fissures are characterized by vertical displacement, and their average annual activity rate is 1–3 cm. We believe that the formation of this large-scale fissure group may be related to the tectonic structure of the hidden faults in the basin and may also be affected by the continuous regional extensional stress of the basin. The current increased level of activity could be caused by the over-exploitation of groundwater in the area.     

Propagation of normal faults to the surface in basalt, Koae fault system, Hawaii

Normal fault scarps of the Koae fault system on Kilauea volcano consistently display locally breached monoclines underlain by prominent cavities, deep gaping fissures on the footwall, finer fissures on the hanging wall, and buckles at the scarp base. Elastic analyses reveal that this assemblage forms as a fault propagates up towards the surface rather than down from it. Models of a planar blind normal fault with a dip exceeding 60° yield a monocline with a tensile stress concentration at the surface where gaping fissures occur, a stronger subsurface tensile stress concentration near the blind fault tip, where cavities occur, and a compressive stress concentration at the surface where buckles occur. The footwall fissures grow down from the tensile stress concentration at the surface and link with a fault as its scarp grows. In contrast, the cavities initiate at depth near the fault tip and propagate with it up towards the surface. The hanging wall fissures apparently open in response to slip on late-forming blind antithetic faults near the surface. Stoped blocks derived from footwall fissure walls help prop the footwall fissures open as a normal fault breaches the surface. The fissures, cavities, and scarp rubble provide highly conductive hydraulic pathways.     

Depositional system and palaeoclimatic interpretations of Middle to Late Pleistocene travertines: Kocabaş, Denizli,south‐west Turkey

Travertine deposits in western Turkey are very well‐exposed in the area of Kocaba?, in the eastern part of the Denizli Basin. The palaeoclimatic significance of these travertines is discussed using U/Th dates, stable isotope data and palynological evidence. The Kocaba? travertine occurrences are characterized by successions of depositional terraces associated with palaeosols and karstic features. The travertines have been classified into eight lithotypes and one erosional horizon, namely: laminated, coated bubble, reed, paper‐thin raft, intraclasts, micritic travertine with gastropods, extra‐formational pebbles and a palaeosol layer. The analysed travertines mostly formed between 181 ka and 80 ka (Middle to Late Pleistocene) during a series of climatic changes including glacial and interglacial intervals; their δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values indicate that the depositional waters were mainly of basinal thermal origin, occasionally mixed with surficial meteoric water. Palynological results obtained from the palaeosols showed an abundance of non‐arboreal percentage and xerophytic plants (Oleaceae and Quercus evergreen type) indicating that a drought occurred. Marine Isotope Stage 6 is represented by grassland species but Marine Isotope Stage 5 is represented by Pinaceae–Pinus and Abies, Quercus and Oleaceae. Uranium/thorium analyses of the Kocaba? travertines show that deposition began in Marine Isotope Stage 6 (glacial) and continued to Marine Isotope Stage 4 (glacial), but mostly occurred in Marine Isotope Stage 5 (interglacial). The travertine deposition continued to ca 80 ka in the south‐west of the study area, in one particular depression depositional system. Palaeoenvironmental indicators suggest that the travertine depositional evolution was probably controlled by fault‐related movements that influenced groundwater flow. Good correlation of the stable isotope values and dates of deposition of the travertines and palynological data of palaeosols in the Kocaba? travertines serve as a starting point for further palaeoclimate studies in south‐west Turkey. Additionally, the study can be compared with other regional palaeoclimate archives.     

Rapid facies changes in Holocene fissure ridge hot spring travertines, Rapolano Terme, Italy

Holocene hot water travertine continues to form at Terme San Giovanni, near Rapolano Terme, central Italy, although artificial diversion of the water has reduced deposition. Mesothermal water (≈38–39 °C) emerging from fault-controlled vents located on a hilltop has created a linear fissure ridge 240 m long and up to 10 m high. Active parts of the ridge crest are covered by small cones; inactive parts are locally neotectonically fissured and have small pools. Ridge deposits include crystalline crust, paper-thin raft and shrub lithotypes. The ridge has both smooth and terraced marginal slopes, dominated by crystalline crusts with small shrubs in terrace pools. At the base of the ridge, there is a rapid transition to lateral flats and depressions, where water from the ridge collects and deposits shrub, irregular pisoid, reed, paper-thin raft and fine-grained and organic-rich travertines. Water channelled to nearby valley sides deposits thick crystalline crusts on valley slopes and waterfall overhangs, locally with small pools filled by smooth spherical pisoids. On the valley floor, mixing of waters forms varied stream-fill deposits that include micritic reed, paper-thin raft and coated bubble travertines. The diversity of travertine facies observed results from the location of the Terme San Giovanni hot springs on a hill crest, thus providing a wide array of downslope locations for further deposition. The abrupt facies transitions observed are characteristic of hot spring carbonates and result from a combination of rapid decrease in precipitation away from vents, variations in local surface topography and the feedback effect of travertine deposition itself, which dams and diverts water flow.     

临潼—长安断裂带内地裂缝特征

简述了临潼—长安断裂带的特征及与地裂缝的关系,根据临潼—长安断裂带内两场地地层勘探剖面,证实了临潼—长安断裂带内地裂缝的存在,表明其与发育在临潼—长安断裂带上盘的西安地裂缝具有相同的性质和特征。同时通过地裂缝两侧地层的错断及厚度变化分析了地裂缝的特点及其地质历史活动规律,表明临潼—长安断裂带内的地裂缝活动受断裂活动影响也表现为东强西弱的特征。     

地裂缝与斜交地铁隧道动力相互作用试验研究

通过进行地裂缝与斜交地铁隧道的物理模型试验,研究地铁列车荷载作用下地裂缝与斜交马蹄形地铁隧道的动力相互作用特性。试验结果表明:地铁行驶产生的振动在土层中各个方向传播时会有不同程度的衰减,地裂缝对地铁振动具有阻隔作用;地裂缝附近隧道下方土层的振动要比上部土层强烈;地铁隧道的拱底部位相比拱腰和拱顶部位振动响应更强烈。地裂缝未活动时,隧道底部与土体的接触附加压力较大;地裂缝上盘下降时,位于地裂缝附近的下盘隧道底部和上盘隧道顶部与土体的接触附加压力较大。地裂缝未活动时,激振作用产生的隧道顶部和底部的附加应变均较小;地裂缝上盘下降后,位于上盘的隧道顶部和位于下盘的隧道底部产生负的附加应变,位于下盘的隧道顶部和位于上盘的隧道底部产生正的附加应变,且随上盘下降量的增大,附加应变逐渐变大。