Diurnal and spatial variabilities of monsoonal CG lightning and precipitation and their association with the synoptic weather conditions over South Korea

The spatial and temporal variations in cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning and precipitation during the summer monsoon months in Korea have been analyzed in relation to the regional synoptic weather conditions. The lightning data used in this study were collected from a lightning detection network installed by the Korean Meteorological Administration, while the precipitation data were collected from 386 Automatic Weather Stations spread over the entire Korean Peninsula during 2000 to 2001. A distinctive morning peak of precipitation is observed over the midwest region of Korea. Along the east coast, little precipitation and CG flash counts are found. Despite the strong afternoon peaks of convective rainfall due to the high elevation over the southern inland region, the south coast shows nocturnal or early morning peaks, which represents a common oceanic pattern of flash counts. In 2000, the nighttime peak for lightning counts dominates over the southern area, while the afternoon peak was strong in the midland during the summer, mainly due to the northward transportation of moisture to the Korean Peninsula. Conversely, the strong afternoon peak for the southern region was confronted with early morning peaks in the midwestern region during 2001. The eastward transport of moisture has been analyzed and was considered to be dominant in 2001. The study of several warm and cold type fronts in 2000 and 2001 indicate that the warm type fronts in 2000 were associated with very little lightning, while the cold type fronts appeared to be responsible for the occurrence of abundant lightning in 2001, thereby, indicating that the warm and cold type fronts were representative of the local lightning distribution in the respective years.     

Analyses of summer lightning activity and precipitation in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean

The lightning activity and precipitation in two 3-hour time intervals in the grid boxes of 0.25 × 0.25° over East and Central Mediterranean during the summer of 2005 and 2006 are analysed. The results show that the frequency distribution of the precipitation amount is shifted towards larger values for the cases with lightning as compared with the cases without lightning. It was found that the number of cases with 3-hour accumulated rainfall greater than 10 mm was bigger when lightning occurred (65%) than when it was absent (35%). Investigation of diurnal and spatial distributions of lightning shows that the afternoon flash density peak is associated mainly with lightning over the land, which is in accordance with the results of earlier works. The early morning flash density peak is associated mainly with flashes over the sea. High correlation coefficients (0.89 during the morning hours and 0.98 during afternoon) were found between rain rate (mm/h) and average flash density (fl/km²) when flash density is averaged in logarithmic intervals of rain rate.     

Some aspects of the correlation between lightning and rain activities in thunderstorms

The lightning activity of convective systems is a sometimes fruitful indicator of their precipitation production. The present study compares rain volume with different types of lightning activity in several convective systems. The study uses data obtained in the Paris area where two lightning detection systems coexist. The Météorage network provides the location and the polarity of cloud-to-ground flashes, while the SAFIR system detects the total flash activity: cloud-to-ground, intra-cloud flashes and VHF individual sources within a given time window. The overall spatial correlation between rain and lightning appears to be very consistent for all lightning types. A pixel-to-pixel study shows that positive CG flashes are associated with higher rainwater volume than negative flashes. Introducing a weight coefficient for positive CG flashes considerably improves the correlation between rain amount and lightning production. Taking into account the specific contribution of each type of lightning flash, the amount of rain can be estimated from the total electrical activity of each system. Comparison with the amount derived from radar measurement shows reasonable agreement. Finally, the parallel time evolutions of rain and lightning rates display quite similar characteristics.     

Temporal and Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Lightning Activity over the Pacific Ocean and Adjacent Land and Its Relationship with AOD and CAPE

Based on LIS/OTD gridded lightning climatology data, ERA5 reanalysis data, and MODIS atmosphere monthly global products, we examined latitudinal and daily variations of lightning activity over land, offshore areas, open sea, and all marine areas (i.e., the aggregate of open sea and offshore areas) for different seasons over the Pacific Ocean and the adjacent land areas at 65°N-50°S, 99°E-78°W, and analysed the relationships of lightning activity with CAPE (Convective Available Potential Energy) and AOD (Aerosol Optical Depth). At any given latitude, the lightning density is the highest over land, followed by offshore areas, all marine areas and the open sea in sequence. The lightning density over land is approximately an order of magnitude greater than that over all marine areas. Lightning activity over land, offshore areas, open sea, and all marine areas varies with season. The diurnal variation of lightning density over land has a single-peak pattern. Over the offshore area, open sea, and all marine areas, lightning densities have two maxima per day. The magnitude of the daily variation in mean lightning density is the largest over land and the smallest over the open sea. The lightning density over the Pacific Ocean and adjacent land areas is significantly and positively correlated with CAPE. The correlation is the strongest over land and the weakest over the open sea. Cloud Base Height (CBH) may affect the efficiency of CAPE conversion to updraft. CAPE has a positive effect on lightning activity and has a greater impact on land than on the ocean. Over the sea, both CAPE and AOD can contribute to lightning activity, but the magnitudes of the influence of CAPE and AOD on lightning activity remain to be determined. Lightning activity over land and sea is a result of the combined action of AOD and CAPE.     

基于卫星观测资料的全球闪电活动特征研究

利用卫星携带的闪电探测系统所获取的11年(1995年5月至2006年4月)闪电资料,对全球闪电活 动特征进行了详细分析。结果表明:全球闪电频数约为46.2 fl s^-1(fl为flash简写,表征闪电发生的次数),在30°S～30°N闪电数占全球闪电总数的78.1%,陆地和海洋的闪电密度之比为9.64:1。近海海域面积占海洋面积的近3成,但闪电数占海洋闪电总数的近7成,远海海域闪电的密度很小。陆地和近海海域闪电活动随季节变化呈现出单峰特征,峰值出现在7月。中高纬度大陆东部近海海域闪电频数大于西部,赤道附近区域相反,大陆西部近海海域闪电频数大于东部。闪电活动随海拔高度的变化呈两峰三谷的特征,两峰分别出现在海拔100～2400 m和3300～4600 m,3个低谷分别出现在海拔100 m以下、2400～3300 m和4600 m以上,这是在地理位置和海拔高度的影响下,各种因素综合作用的结果。     

Estimation of Lightning-Generated NOx in the Mainland of China Based on Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Location Data

Lightning-generated nitrogen oxides(LNO_x) have a major influence on the atmosphere and global climate change.Therefore, it is of great importance to obtain a more accurate estimation of LNO_x. The aim of this study is to provide a reference for the accurate estimation of the total LNO_x in the mainland of China based on cloud-to-ground lightning(CG)location data from 2014 to 2018. The energy of each CG flash was based on the number of return strokes per CG flash, t...     

华中地区不同地形下的雷暴地闪特征分析

利用湖北省2013—2018年6—8月ADTD闪电探测数据对该地区的闪电活动进行特征分析后发现, 地闪密度和日变化特征与地形密切相关, 其中, 闪电密度高值区出现在海拔500~1 500 m的中尺度山脉向平原的过渡地带以及山脉之间的平原(河谷)地区; 山区的地闪集中在午后至傍晚时段, 具有明显的单峰特征, 平原的地闪日变化相对平缓, 虽然主峰值同样出现在午后, 但夜间地闪活动依然活跃。基于2015—2016年6—8月逐6 min雷达组合反射率拼图产品和地闪资料挑选了94例伴有显著闪电活动的雷暴系统个例, 经统计分析后发现, 雷暴系统的初次地闪、峰值地闪和末次地闪均集中出现在13:00—18:00, 其中, 山区雷暴的地闪持续时间较短, 地闪频数峰值较小; 平原雷暴的地闪持续时间更长, 地闪频数峰值也更大; 山麓雷暴的特征则介于两者之间。利用ERA-Interim再分析资料进行成因分析后可知, 地形强迫和局地热力不稳定是影响湖北山区夏季闪电密度分布和日变化特征的关键因子。      

暴雨和雹暴个例中闪电特征对比

暴雨与雹暴过程中对应的闪电活动特征显著不同,为了对比这两类对流过程中的闪电活动特征差异,该文选取了两种比较有代表性的雷暴个例——暴雨过程和雹暴过程,利用全闪（包括云闪与地闪）定位数据,分析了两者闪电活动特征以及闪电活动与对流降水之间的关系。研究发现:暴雨过程中地闪频次和正地闪比例均低于雹暴过程;相对于暴雨过程,雹暴过程的主正电荷区放电高度更高,主正电荷区所处的温度偏低;暴雨过程中,总闪频次与对流降水量、总闪频次与对流降水强度的相关性均优于雹暴过程。总体而言,雹暴过程中闪电活动特征及其与降水的关系更为复杂,这可能与雹暴过程具有更为复杂的动力和冰相过程有关。     

Lightning activity related to satellite and radar observations of a mesoscale convective system over Texas on 7–8 April 2002

A multi-sensor study of the leading-line, trailing-stratiform (LLTS) mesoscale convective system (MCS) that developed over Texas in the afternoon of 7 April 2002 is presented. The analysis relies mainly on operationally available data sources such as GOES East satellite imagery, WSR-88D radar data and NLDN cloud-to-ground flash data. In addition, total lightning information in three dimensions from the LDAR II network in the Dallas–Ft. Worth region is used.GOES East satellite imagery revealed several ring-like cloud top structures with a diameter of about 100 km during MCS formation. The Throckmorton tornadic supercell, which had formed just ahead of the developing linear MCS, was characterized by a high CG+ percentage below a V-shaped cloud top overshoot north of the tornado swath. There were indications of the presence of a tilted electrical dipole in this storm. Also this supercell had low average CG− first stroke currents and flash multiplicities. Interestingly, especially the average CG+ flash multiplicity in the Throckmorton storm showed oscillations with an estimated period of about 15 min.Later on, in the mature LLTS MCS, the radar versus lightning activity comparison revealed two dominant discharge regions at the back of the convective leading edge and a gentle descent of the upper intracloud lightning region into the trailing stratiform region, apparently coupled to hydrometeor sedimentation. There was evidence for an inverted dipole in the stratiform region of the LLTS MCS, and CG+ flashes from the stratiform region had high first return stroke peak currents.     

广州地区雷暴过程云-地闪特征及其环境条件

应用雷电定位系统和高空观测资料并结合雷达回波资料, 对广州地区雷暴过程云-地闪特征进行分析, 并就有、无云-地闪出现的两组不同对流天气过程的环境条件进行了比较研究。结果表明:广州地区的雷暴过程以负的云-地闪为主, 负云-地闪所占比例在90%以上。云-地闪发生频率与雷暴系统强度演变有直接联系, 对于同一系统来说, 随着系统回波强度的增强, 云-地闪发生的频率也增高。但不同系统中, 云-地闪发生频率有很大不同, 回波强(弱)的对流系统并不意味着云-地闪发生的频率就高(低)。有云-地闪记录的对流天气过程具有更大的垂直切变、更高的相对风暴螺旋度以及更多的对流抑制能量, 云-地闪现象更易于出现在更加有组织和更强的对流系统中。研究还发现广州及周边城市区域对雷暴系统回波强度及云-地闪现象可能有影响, 两个典型个例分析表明, 雷暴系统移经城市区域时回波强度减弱, 云-地闪发生频率减小, 雷暴移过城市区域后, 强度可重新加强, 云-地闪发生频率增大。     

2007年丹东和阜新地区地闪特征

针对2007年辽宁地闪资料进行分析。结果表明：丹东和阜新是辽宁南北两个地闪高发区,其地闪变化既有共同之处,也有差异点。两地均为负地闪次数远远多于正地闪次数,正闪比相差不大;正闪比春季大,夏季少;丹东平均正、负地闪峰值电流强度均值大于阜新。地闪多发于午后到夜间,丹东多发于早晨。定义了地闪持续时数,分析发现地闪多集中发生在持续6h及以上的地闪活动过程中,因而持续6h及以上的地闪活动过程潜在危害较大。丹东地闪活动易发月份为5-10月,阜新为5-8月;丹东地闪活动最活跃期为8月,阜新地区为7月。     

华北一次中尺度对流系统中的闪电活动特征及其与雷暴动力过程的关系研究

利用地面地闪定位资料、多普勒天气雷达和常规气象资料, 分析了一次具有前部对流线和后部大范围层状云降水(LLTS)的典型中尺度对流系统(MCS)的闪电活动演变特征。整个MCS生命史中负地闪占主导地位, 正地闪则表现不活跃。观测得到MCS消散阶段云闪与地闪的比例为2∶1, 地闪主要分布在地面相对位温和对流不稳定能量均达到高值的区域; 负地闪主要密集地分布在大于40 dBZ的回波范围内; 正地闪则稀疏地分布在30～40 dBZ的回波范围内。在低于-40℃的温度区域内地闪分布较多, 而密集的地闪分布在温度梯度大的区域内。结合单多普勒雷达的水平风场反演, 发现地闪集中出现在气流表现为气旋性切变或水平风呈现切变的区域。该区域与MCS的强回波区相对应, 并且地闪易发生在上升气流达到最大并开始出现下沉气流的阶段。     

A decade of cloud‐to‐ground lightning in Canada: 1999–2008. Part 1: Flash density and occurrence

Abstract

Flash density and occurrence features for more than 23.5 million cloud‐to‐ground (CG) lightning flashes detected by the Canadian Lightning Detection Network (CLDN) from 1999 to 2008 are analyzed on 20 × 20 km equal area squares over Canada. This study was done to update an analysis performed in 2002 with just three years of data. Flashes were detected throughout the year, and distinct geographic differences in flash density and lightning occurrence were observed. The shape and locations of large scale patterns of lightning occurrence remained almost the same, although some details were different. Flash density maxima occurred at the same locations as found previously: the Swan Hills and Foothills of Alberta, southeastern Saskatchewan, southwestern Manitoba and southwestern Ontario. A region of greater lightning occurrence but relatively low flash density south of Nova Scotia occurred at the same location as reported previously. New areas of higher flash density occurred along the US border with northwestern Ontario and southern Quebec. These appear to be northward extensions of higher flash density seen in the previous study. The greatest average CG flash density was 2.8 flash km^?2 y^?1 in southwestern Ontario, where the greatest single‐year flash density (10.3 flash km^?2 y^?1) also occurred. Prominent flash density minima occurred east of the Continental Divide in Alberta and over the Niagara Escarpment in southern Ontario.

Lightning activity is seen to be highly influenced by the length of the season, proximity to cold water bodies and elevation. The diurnal heating and cooling cycle exerted the main control over lightning occurrence over most land areas; however, storm translation and transient dynamic features complicated the time pattern of lightning production. A large portion of the southern Prairie Provinces experienced more than 50% of flashes between 22:30 and 10:30 local solar time. The duration of lightning over a 20 × 20 km square at most locations in Canada is 5–10 h y^?1, although the duration exceeded 15 h y^?1 over extreme southwestern Ontario. Lightning occurred on 15–30 days each year, on average, over most of the interior of the country. The greatest number of days with lightning in a single year was 47 in the Alberta foothills and 50 in southwestern Ontario. Beginning and ending dates of the lightning season show that the season length decreases from north to south; however, there are considerable east‐west differences between regions. The season is nearly year‐round in the Pacific coastal region, southern Nova Scotia, southern Newfoundland and offshore.     

山东地区冰雹云的闪电活动特征

利用山东电力部门提供的雷电定位资料,对10次冰雹过程的地闪活动特征进行了分析。通过分析发现,雹暴中正地闪占总地闪的比例平均为57.39％,远高于当地正地闪比例的气候特征值13.48％。地面降雹区基本出现在正地闪密集（活跃）区或邻近区域。在雹云快速发展阶段,地闪频数存在明显的“跃增”;在减弱消散阶段,地闪频数显著减少,但正地闪比例有所提高。负地闪频数峰值的出现通常提前于降雹0～20 min,正地闪频数峰值的出现一般滞后于降雹发生时间。整个降雹阶段对应于正地闪的活跃阶段。另外,结合对卫星观测的总闪电资料分析,发现冰雹云的云闪与地闪的比值远高于一般的雷雨过程,其云闪密度也远高于雷雨过程。以上这些特征对于冰雹的识别和对冰雹的超短时预报具有指示意义。     

北京及其周边地区夏季地闪活动时空特征分析

利用M-LDARS闪电定位系统对北京及其周边地区1995～1997年6～9月的闪电观测数据, 分析闪电活动的时空分布特征。结果表明:闪电活动在时间分布上存在两个峰值时段, 13 :00～21:00和23:00～次日05 :00。通过对总地闪、分时段及峰值时段的地闪密度分析, 发现北京及周边地区闪电活动有几个明显的集中区域, 地闪高密度区主要出现在下垫面为山脉和水体的地方, 闪电活动与下垫面的水汽条件关系密切, 且正、负地闪的空间分布也呈现较大差异, 表明雷暴云的电荷结构存在一定差异。     

The intracloud/cloud-to-ground lightning ratio in Southeastern Brazil

The intracloud to cloud-to-ground lightning flash ratio (Z) has been estimated for the first time in Southeastern Brazil and in the tropical region using the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) and Brazilian lightning detection network (BrasilDat) lightning data obtained from 1999 to 2005. Geographical variations of Z and their relation to elevation, latitude, precipitation, total lightning density and percentage of positive CG lightning will be discussed. Daily variations of Z will also be presented. The results suggest that Z values are similar to studies outside the tropics and that are influenced by orographic features.     

Analysis of thunderstorm and lightning activity associated with sprites observed during the EuroSprite campaigns: Two case studies

During the summers of 2003 to 2006 sprites were observed over thunderstorms in France by cameras on mountain tops in Southern France. The observations were part of a larger coordinated effort, the EuroSprite campaigns, with data collected simultaneously from other sources including the French radar network for precipitation structure, Meteosat with images of cloud top temperature and the Météorage network for detection of cloud-to-ground (CG) flash activity. In this paper two storms are analyzed, each producing 27 sprite events. Both storms were identified as Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCS) with a trailing stratiform configuration (ST) and reaching a maximum cloud area of ~ 120,000 km². Most of the sprites were produced while the stratiform area was clearly developed and during periods of substantial increase of rainfall in regions with radar reflectivity between 30 and 40 dBZ. The sprite-producing periods followed a maximum in the CG lightning activity and were characterized by a low CG flash rate with a high proportion of + CG flashes, typically around 50%. All sprites were associated with + CGs except one which was observed after a − CG as detected by the Météorage network. This − CG was estimated to have − 800 C km charge moment change. The peak current of sprite-producing + CG (SP + CG) flashes was twice the average value of + CGs and close to 60 kA with little variation between the periods of sprite activity. The SP + CG flashes were further characterized by short time intervals before a subsequent CG flash (median value < 0.5 s) and with clusters of several CG flashes which suggest that SP + CG flashes often are part of multi-CG flash processes. One case of a lightning process associated with a sprite consisted of 7 CG flashes.     

青藏高原那曲地区地闪与雷达参量关系

基于2014—2015年5—9月西藏那曲地区多普勒天气雷达数据,结合地闪观测数据,识别雷暴单体样本,统计分析了地闪位置附近的雷达回波分布特征,并研究了高原雷暴的雷达参量与地闪频次的相关关系。结果表明:那曲地区地闪发生位置附近的雷达最大反射率因子呈正态分布,峰值分布区间集中于34~41 dBZ。发生地闪位置附近的20 dBZ回波顶主要集中于11~15 km高度,30 dBZ回波顶高分布的峰值区间则为8.5~12 km。分析表明:表征局地雷暴对流发展强度的雷达参量与地闪频次之间一对一的相关关系较差,但相关性随地闪频次增加而增强。基于雷达参量分段统计得到的对应分段平均地闪频次与雷达参量之间表现出较强相关关系,体现了宏观上闪电活动强度与雷暴发展强度之间的正向关系。其中,基于原始数值进行区间划分的强回波（组合反射率因子不小于30 dBZ）面积与平均地闪频次的线性相关系数达0.75,基于对数数值区间划分的7~11 km累积可降冰含量的对数值和地闪频次的线性相关系数达0.95。文中对比了多个雷达参量和地闪频次线性拟合与幂函数拟合结果,整体上幂函数拟合略好于线性拟合。     

一次正地闪触发两个并发上行闪电的光电观测

广州高建筑物雷电观测站光电同步观测系统于2017年6月16日记录到一次峰值电流达+141 kA的单回击正地闪触发两个并发上行闪电过程。利用高速摄像、普通摄像和电场变化数据分析了触发型上行闪电的始发特征和机理。结果表明:正地闪回击后约0.8 ms内,在距正地闪接地点约3.9 km的广州塔（高600 m）和4.1 km的东塔（高530 m）分别有上行闪电始发。正地闪回击过程中和大量正电荷以及之后可能有云内负先导朝高塔方向快速伸展造成塔顶局部区域的电场发生突变是两个上行闪电激发的原因。两个上行闪电在353 ms内发生7次回击,其中6次在广州塔上,仅1次在东塔上,且广州塔回击峰值电流平均值（-21.4 kA）约为东塔回击峰值电流（-7.3 kA）的3倍,表明广州塔上行闪电通道可能比东塔上行闪电通道伸展至分布范围更广、电荷量（或电荷密度）更大的负电荷区。两个上行闪电先导的二维速率变化范围为9.4×104~1.8×106 m·s-1,平均值为6.9×105 m·s-1。     

山东地区闪电的特征分析

利用1998～2000年山东地区雷电探测网获取的云对地闪电资料，从闪电的日变化、闪电的强度、闪电密度、极性等方面研究了山东地区的雷电分布特征。结果表明，云地闪电中负闪占绝大多数；正闪的平均强度大于负闪，在闪电强度较小和较大时发生的正闪占总正闪电总数的比例相应地高于负闪；闪电的发生也有明显的日变化，总体呈双峰双谷形式；闪电的空间分布与地形有关，也与下垫面的性质有关。对部分城市市区闪电密度的统计分析表明，济宁、莱芜、滨州、泰安、济南等位于鲁中地区的城市更应加强人工防雷工作。