Research Progress of 4D Multicomponent Seismic Monitoring Techniquein Carbon Capture and Storage

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technology is currently recognized as the most effective way to mitigate greenhouse gas. CO₂ geological storage is the key technique in CCS, and monitoring the safety of CO₂ geological storage runs through the whole CCS project from CO₂ injection and after closure. 4D seismic monitoring technique is the most effective way to monitor the leakage of CO₂ and to confirm the safety of CO₂ sequestration. Traditional 4D seismic technology predicts saturation of CO₂ and pressure distribution in reservoir by comparing two vintages seismic amplitude and travel time from two or repeated 3D seismic data before and after CO₂ injection or between two different injection stages. 4D multicomponent seismic monitoring has a great potential to be explored. Because shear wave velocity is sensitive to pressure, we may discriminate pore pressure distribution by using 4D multicomponent seismic information. For anisotropy reservoir, we may confirm the change of reservoir fissures and fractures as well as reservoir and caprock stress status before and after CO₂ injection through comparing difference of travel time and amplitude of PS₁ and PS₂ wave in two vintages seismic acquisition. Furthermore, we will find out potential CO₂ leakage risk area more accurately and evaluate the safety of CO₂ sequestration more reliablely by combining rock physics experiment and dipole sonic log data with 4D multicomponent seismic monitoring.     

二氧化碳地质封存环境监测现状及建议

CO2地质封存是应对全球气候变化的新举措,许多国家都开展了相关的工程项目或研究。环境监测作为验证场址在当前以及较长一段时间后的合理性和安全性的重要手段,是工程实施的重要工作。对国内外CO2地质封存环境监测的相关工作以及项目所采用的监测技术进行总结,并利用监测选择工具MST得出中石化胜利油田CO2-EOR项目适用的监测技术,在此基础上提出该项目背景监测的对象、技术和频率等框架,为项目监测工作的开展提供参考依据,最后简略提出环境监测工作的方法和大纲。     

中国年封存量百万吨级CO2地质封存选址策略

CO₂地质封存是实现碳中和背景下难减排产业可持续发展的重要支撑技术。相较一些发达国家已经成功实现封存量为每年百万吨级CO₂封存项目工业化,中国的CO₂地质封存项目起步较晚,以封存量为每年十万吨级CO₂封存项目为主,而针对年封存量百万吨级及以上大型CO₂封存项目的选址、封存和监测尚缺乏经验。在针对世界上15个年封存量百万吨级CO₂地质封存项目成功案例调研基础上,按照封存场地圈闭地质类型划分了构造型圈闭(背斜型、断层型和裂缝型)和岩性型圈闭(砂岩型和碳酸盐岩型)两大类。在统计不同类型封存场地地质特征参数基础上,从“规模性、注入性、安全性和经济性”4大指标入手,提出了“大(Big)、通(Permeable)、保(Preserved)、值(Value)” BPPV选址原则,明确了年封存量百万吨级CO₂地质封存场地选址原则及参数标准。我国盆地类型多样差异大,需要采取不同的CO₂封存策略。针对鄂尔多斯、大庆油田等大型坳陷型盆地,由于其构造规模大、砂体分布面广、大规模背斜和岩性圈闭发育,寻找大型整装深层盐水层或者衰竭型油气藏封存场地的潜力大;针对东部渤海湾及近海断陷型盆地,由于断层发育、断层相关圈闭多、单圈闭容量较小,封存有效性受断层影响大,宜采取圈闭群综合评价与断层活动性动态评价相结合的策略;对西部叠合盆地,盆地边缘构造冲断带一般构造应力强、地层压力高、CO₂注入难度大,但盆地中央古隆起斜坡可以成为有效的封存场地,因此对西部盆地需要采取分区分带分层评价策略。     

A review of theories of mechanisms of induced seismicity

Theories of the physical processes leading to the stimulation of seismic activity by underground explosions, fluid injection, and reservoir impoundment are summarized. In all cases, the materials must be pre-stressed to a substantial fraction of their breaking strength in order for seismicity to be induced. Stress concentrations due to the presence of old faults or to inhomogeneities in the material properties play an important role in localizing induced seismicity.

For the few cases for which data are available, the stimulation of earthquakes by fluid injection in bore holes is adequately explained by a Coulomb-Mohr failure criterion and the concept of effective pressure in a water-filled porous mechanism. Reservoir-related earthquakes are most likely due to the same mechanism, but, in view of the low injection pressures, additional physical or chemical effects of the water on the materials may play an important role. There may be a weakening of the materials in old fault zones by the introduction of water or static fatigue in silicate rocks due to stress corrosion.     

长庆油田黄3区长8特低渗油藏二氧化碳驱油与埋存先导试验

为了评价CO₂驱在长庆油田特低渗油藏中的适应性及应用潜力,中国石油长庆油田进行了CO₂驱油与埋存先导试验技术研究,取得了令人满意的初步效果。在综合对比周边气源条件、油藏条件、现场道路及CO₂试运输的基础上,确定姬源油田黄3区长8油藏为先导试验区块。该区块油藏规模大,油藏条件具有达到混相驱的条件,周边气源丰富,现场道路条件好,属于低渗透开发早期油藏,但水驱开采效率低,开发效果逐年下降。先导试注效果显示:在CO₂驱的作用下,黄3区长8油藏部分油井的日产液量及日产油量明显上升,且含水率下降。与水驱注入压力相比较,CO₂注入压力无明显上升,且不随注入量的多少而变化,说明黄3区长8油藏具有较好的CO₂注入性和良好的吸气能力。同时结果表明,所选取的CO₂注入参数设计基本合理,CO₂驱具有进一步在长庆油田推广的良好前景。然而,由于CO₂注入压力较水驱上升幅度较低,原方案的周期注气方式、注入速率及注入压力上限等仍有实行进一步优化的空间。此外,为了提升试验效果,可逐步扩大试验规模,以便CO₂驱试验在长庆油田范围内的整体性评价分析。     

巴西桑托斯盆地高含CO2油气藏类型、特征及成因模式

桑托斯盆地盐下油气藏中CO₂分布广泛,局部摩尔分数极高,给勘探、开发都带来了巨大挑战。通过对典型油气藏解剖分析,并利用流体取样、闪蒸实验测试分析等资料,将盆内油气藏分为3类：类型Ⅰ,含CO₂溶解气的高气油比常规油藏;类型Ⅱ,CO₂气顶+油环型油气藏;类型Ⅲ,（含溶解烃）CO₂气藏。其中类型Ⅰ油藏和类型ⅢCO₂气藏中流体性质均匀、稳定,油-水界面、气-水界面清晰;类型Ⅱ气顶+油环型油气藏流体成分和性质不均匀、不稳定,流体界面复杂。物理热模拟实验表明盆内3种类型油气藏是地层条件下,超临界状态CO₂和烃类有限互溶,动态成藏过程不同阶段的产物。动态成藏过程中,CO₂对烃类进行抽提、萃取,烃类（原油）对CO₂进行溶解,两者相互作用存在一个动态平衡（范围）。烃类和CO₂相对量大小决定了最终的油气藏类型,温-压条件变化和油气藏开发可改变油气藏平衡状态,造成流体相态变化和3类油气藏间的相互转化。     

Seismicity and faulting attributable to fluid extraction

The association between fluid injection and seismicity has been well documented and widely publicized. Less well known, but probably equally widespread are faulting and shallow seismicity attributable solely to fluid extraction, particularly in association with petroleum production.

Two unequivocable examples of seismicity and faulting associated with fluid extraction in the United States are: The Goose Creek, Texas oil field event of 1925 (involving surface rupture); and the Wilmington, California oil field events (involving subsurface rupture) of 1947, 1949, 1951 (2), 1955, and 1961. Six additional cases of intensity I–VII earthquakes (M < 4.6) without reported faulting may be attributable to shallow production from other large oil and gas fields. In addition to these examples are thirteen cases of apparently aseismic surface rupture associated with production from California and Texas oil fields. Small earthquakes in the Eloy—Picacho area of Arizona may be attributable to withdrawal of groundwater, but their relation to widespread fissuring is enigmatic. The clearest example of extraction-induced seismicity outside of North America is the 1951 series of earthquakes associated with gas production from the Po River delta near Caviga, Italy.

Faulting and seismicity associated with fluid extraction are attributed to differential compaction at depth caused by reduction of reservoir fluid pressure and attendant increase in effective stress. Surface and subsurface measurements and theoretical and model studies show that differential compaction leads not only to differential subsidence and centripetally-directed horizontal displacements, but to changes in both vertical- and horizontal-strain regimes. Study of well-documented examples indicates that the occurrence and nature of faulting and seismicity associated with compaction are functions chiefly of: (1) the pre-exploitation strain regime, and (2) the magnitude of contractional horizontal strain centered over the compacting materials relative to that of the surrounding annulus of extensional horizontal strain.

The examples cited include natural systems strained only by extraction of fluids, as well as some subsequently subjected to injection. Faulting and seismicity have accompanied both decrease and subsequent increase of fluid pressures; reversal of fluid-pressure decline by injection may enhance the likelihood of subsurface faulting and seismicity due chiefly to earlier fluid pressure reduction. A consistent common denominator appears to be continuing compaction at depth; the relative effects of fluid extraction followed by injection are not easily separated.     

Status and Advances of Abandoned Process of Wells for CO2 Geological Storage

With the rapid development of CO₂ geological storage and utilization (CCS/CCUS), the abandoned well in the sites of CCS/CCUS projects is becoming an important subject to be solved to check whether it can effectively block the residual CO₂ or not. Up to now, the abandoned process of wells in the field of oil and gas in China and abroad have gained mature operation technology and rich experience. However, in the field of CCS/CCUS, there is only a small number of global public instances about the abandoned process of operational wells of CO₂ including CO₂ injection wells and CO₂ monitoring wells, and the domestic instance is still blank. In this paper, we firstly summarized the required demands, materials, cases of operational experiences, and monitoring requirements of the abandoned process of operational wells of CO₂ in the developed countries, e.g. the Netherlands, the United States and Canada. Then, we figured out the status of the abandoned process of domestic wells in oil and gas industry. Finally, we concluded the differences of the abandoned process between operational wells of CO₂ and traditional wells of oil and gas, and proposed some recommendations for the abandoned process of operational wells of CO₂ in the current and future CCS/CCUS projects in China. This study has important implications for the upcoming abandoned process of all the operational wells at Shenhua CCS demonstration site in 2016.     

泄漏情景下碳封存项目的环境影响监测技术方法

CO₂环境影响监测技术作为碳捕集、利用与封存(Carbon Capture,Utilization and Storage,CCUS)体系的重要组成部分,贯穿整个储存过程,决定着CCUS工程的成败,对CCUS工程的有效性、持续性、安全性及碳减排效果的评估发挥着举足轻重的作用。为确保碳封存项目安全可靠运行,需要对环境影响、地层响应和CO₂地下运移等多个监测指标开展全流程测量和监控。不同监测阶段、不同监测指标下CO₂环境影响监测的重点会有所不同,相应的监测技术组合也略有差别。围绕地质封存中CO₂泄漏监测及泄漏源监测识别问题,系统剖析了CO₂环境影响监测技术的特点和应用场景,阐述了不同监测阶段、不同监测指标下CO₂环境影响监测技术方法的研究进展,总结了不同泄漏情景下CO₂环境影响监测技术方法的选择及其在实际应用中面临的问题,认为实时连续的监测设备研发、“大气-地表-地下”立体化快速监测技术体系以及长期有效的CO₂监测管理系统构建将是CO₂环境影响监测技术的发展方向。可为未来开展百万吨级碳封存工程的环境影响监测提供参考和借鉴。     

Induced seismicity in Canada

The annual and cumulative catalogues of Canadian earthquakes prepared by the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, are critically examined to determine if they contain examples of induced seismic activity caused by fluid injection in oil fields, by the impounding of water in large reservoirs or by mining.

It is concluded that there is just one example each of induced seismic activity caused by fluid injection and by reservoir impoundment, but that there are many examples of induced seismic activity associated with mining. These include both mine bumps and rockbursts.     

Seismicity around Brazilian dam reservoirs

More than 30 cases of seismicity associated with dam reservoir sites are known throughout the world. Despite the lack of data in some areas, where seismicity occurred after reservoir impounding, there have been distinct seismic patterns observed in seismic areas after dam projects implantation. This has demonstrated that reservoir loading can trigger earthquakes. A mechanism of earthquake generation by reservoir impounding is proposed here with particular application to the Brazilian cases and to areas subject to low confining stress conditions in stable regions. Six artificial lakes are described and the associated earthquake sources are discussed in terms of natural or induced seismicity. Earthquake monitoring in Brazil up to 1967, when Brasilia's seismological station started operation, was mainly based in personal communications to the media. Therefore, there is a general lack of seismic records in relatively uninhabited areas, making it difficult to establish a seismic risk classification for the territory and to distinguish natural from induced seismicity. Despite this, cases reported here have shown an alteration of the original seismic stability in dam sites, after reservoir loading, as observed by the inhabitants or records from Brasilia's seismological station. All cases appear to be related to an increase in pore pressure in permeable rocks or fracture zones which are confined between impermeable rock slabs of more competent rock. It is apparent that some cases show some participation of high residual stress conditions in the area.     

玄武岩封存CO2技术方法及其进展

玄武岩封存CO₂为碳捕集与封存（CCS）提供了一种新的具有潜在意义的选择。当今世界上已有三个示范工程案例,即日本Nagaoka、美国Wallula和冰岛Carbfix,这些实例初步证实了CO₂玄武岩封存的技术和经济可行性。玄武岩封存CO₂相关技术研究进展包括:（1）Carbfix项目采用水溶液替代胺溶剂来捕集烟气中的CO₂气体,以便同时对CO₂和其他可溶于水的气体进行捕获,而在排放点源只需简单加装水洗塔等设备作为气体分离装置;（2）冰岛提出了适用于CO₂饱和溶液注入与封存的Carbfix方法,设计出能分别注入气体和水溶液的专用系统;（3）Carbfix在注入与封存CO₂过程中首次采用示踪元素监测方法,并通过质量平衡方法定量估算注入CO₂发生碳酸盐化的百分比,发现往玄武岩里注入CO₂不到2年就有95%被完全矿化。今后仍需进一步研究的技术问题包括:（1）CO₂饱和溶液与超临界CO₂两种注入形式如何选择;（2）能否用海水替代淡水溶解CO₂;（3）如何提高地球化学模拟的准确性;（4）如何降低碳捕集、分离和运输环节成本。相关探讨对我国利用基性超基性岩进行CO₂封存具有一定借鉴意义。     

Marine Carbon Sequestration: Current Situation,Problems and Future

Abuse of fossil energy resources results in the excessive discharge of greenhouse gases, especially CO₂, enhancing the trend of global climate warming. Carbon sequestration is an important method to lower the increasing rate of CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere. Marine carbon sequestration is a novel idea for reducing CO₂ emission, and its reservoir mainly includes seawater and submarine sediment, which not only possess a great potential capacity of carbon sequestration, but also have high safety in relation to continental reservoirs. In this paper, we expounded the technique principle and mechanisms of marine carbon sequestration, potential capacity and time duration of marine carbon sequestration, main factors influencing marine carbon sequestration, CO₂ injection technique, impacts on marine biota from over emission of CO₂ and technique monitoring the leakage of CO₂. Finally, a prospect of marine carbon sequestration was proposed, and its hot topics were accordingly pointed out.     

Analytical investigation of hydraulic fracture-induced seismicity and fault activation

More recent public discourse has taken place regarding the potential correlation between seismic activity and hydraulic fracturing in shale gas reservoirs. Public fears about the risk of seismicity stem mainly from past earthquakes induced by conventional deep injections because the two types of projects share similar mechanisms of rock failure and fault activation. Although previous earthquake risks associated with fluid injection were not serious, the situation would be far more problematic if hydraulic fracturing in a shale gas reservoir triggered a similar-sized earthquake due to potential environmental issues. In fact, almost all documented injection-induced earthquakes have been associated with long-duration and high-volume injection rather than short-term (hours) pressurization (e.g., hydraulic fracturing). In general, hydraulic fracturing operations mostly induce microseismic events through rock failure and activation of small fractures. Although shale reservoirs in tectonically active zones pose a high risk of inducing large-magnitude seismic activities, the internal geological conditions and external stimulation conditions are impossible to be satisfied simultaneously to trigger activation of an entire fault and to result in a destructive earthquake during hydraulic fracturing operations.     

Seismicity changes associated with reservoir loading

Changes in seismic activity have been related to the filling of large reservoirs in over thirty cases. These changes range from variations in the level of micro-earthquake activity detectable only with instruments of high sensitivity to destructive earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 6. On the other hand, the filling of many other large reservoirs has not been accompanied by increased seismicity.

A number of factors may contribute to the generation or absence of post-impounding seismicity. Increased vertical stress due to the load of the reservoir and decreased effective stress due to increased pore pressure can modify the stress regime in the reservoir region. Whether or not these stress changes are sufficient to generate earthquake activity will depend on a complex interaction of the induced stress with the state of pre-existing stress near the reservoir, and on the geologic and hydrologic conditions at the site. The combined effect of increased vertical load and increased pore pressure will have the greatest tendency to increase activity in regions where the maximum compressive stress is vertical (normal faulting). In regions where the minimum compressive stress is vertical (thrust faulting) increased stress due to a vertical load should have a minimum effect. For all of the larger reservoir-induced earthquakes the stress system determined from fault plane solutions is in agreement with the pre-existing stress field in the region of the reservoir. These earthquakes are all of strike-slip or normal type, there being no reported cases of large induced earthquakes with thrusting mechanisms.

The potential for major changes in seismicity may be highest in regions of moderate strain accumulation (low to moderate natural seismicity). In areas of high strain accumulation and high levels of natural seismicity, the stress changes induced by the reservoir will be small compared to natural variations. In aseismic areas, with low strain accumulation, the reservoir-induced stresses may be insufficient to raise the stress level to a state of failure.     

CO2地质封存与利用示范工程进展及典型案例分析

CO₂地质封存与利用工程实施具有十分可观的CO₂减排效果,推行CO₂地质封存与利用项目对于缓解全球气候变暖、践行我国可持续发展战略具有重要意义。梳理了目前主要的CO₂地质封存与利用方式,统计了全球范围内的CO₂地质封存与利用示范工程,重点介绍了我国典型CO₂地质封存与利用示范工程案例,并对CO₂地质封存与利用技术发展趋势进行了展望。目前,CO₂地质封存与利用方式主要包括CO₂驱油封存、CO₂驱替煤层气封存、CO₂咸水层封存、CO₂枯竭油气藏封存、CO₂驱替页岩气封存、CO₂深部咸水层封存与采水、CO₂封存与增强型地热发电、CO₂封存与铀矿地浸开采等;国内外在CO₂驱油封存、CO₂咸水层封存以及CO...     

二氧化碳地质存储与煤层气强化开发有效性研究述评

煤层CO₂地质存储与CH₄强化开采（CO₂-ECBM）技术融温室气体减排与化石新能源开发为一体,极具发展前景。CO₂-ECBM技术有效性是经济性、长期性和安全性的基础和前提,建立深部煤层CO₂-ECBM有效性理论和生产技术在中国的需求尤为迫切。中国、美国、英国、澳大利亚、日本等国家在该领域开展了大量实验模拟、数值模拟和工程探索研究。研究工作表明:CO₂可注性、CO₂封存机制与存储容量、CH₄增产效果构成了CO₂-ECBM有效性的核心内涵,其中CO₂可注性更为关键;CO₂注入时煤储层发生体积应变效应和地球化学反应效应,其导致的渗透率快速衰减与可注性变差制约着CO₂-ECBM的有效性;CO₂/CH₄竞争吸附与置换是主要的CO₂封存机制,地层条件下CO₂/CH₄竞争吸附与置换封存决定了有效存储容量的主体,对于超临界CO₂,改进的吸附势模型（Modified D-R model）表征计算结果与实验模拟结果的拟合度最好;通过优化注入参数、间歇性注入、先压后注、与N₂交替注入等方式可以提高深部煤层的CO₂可注性,试验井组煤层气生产井可实现最高3.8倍的增产效果;沁水盆地深部无烟煤CO₂-ECBM技术的有效性已得到实验室研究和工程试验的初步证实。中国科学家在持续开展和不断深化CO₂-ECBM技术的研究工作,CO₂-ECBM有效性的关键科学技术问题有望在中国得到破解。      

低渗卤水盆地提高CO2注入性的技术方法: 以江汉盆地为例

注入性是关系CO₂地质储存成功与否的一个关键的技术和经济问题, 评价与提高CO₂在中国陆相沉积盆地普遍存在的低渗储层中的注入能力对于碳捕集与封存技术在中国的应用与推广具有重要意义.以江汉盆地江陵凹陷为例, 通过数值模拟的方法开展高盐低渗储层CO₂注入能力评估与提高方案研究.结果表明: 预注入淡水和低盐度的微咸水溶液均可不同程度地缓解注入井周围的盐沉淀问题; 预注入CO₂饱和溶液或稀盐酸溶液, 可显著提高注入井周围的孔渗值, 提高CO₂注入性, 但由于储层本身的低渗性, 迁移距离有限, 短时间内较难实现CO₂注入速率的大幅度提高.采取水力压裂措施可显著提高低渗储层中CO₂的注入性, 其提升能力取决于压裂裂缝的半长度以及压裂程度.对于单个垂直井, 通过水力压裂对储层加以改造, 并采取多层注入的方式, 在低渗储层中实现数十万吨的年注入量是可能的.      

典型电厂海洋CO2地质储存场地选址适宜性评估

我国华东和东部沿海地区分布有大量的火电、水泥和炼油等CO₂排放源,但由于距离陆域大中型沉积盆地较远,限制了规模化的深部咸水层CO₂地质储存工程选址。本文以华能玉环电厂为实例,开展了东海陆架盆地瓯江凹陷场地选址适宜性评估。通过瓯江凹陷CO₂地质储存地质条件分析,初步圈定出了发育有利储盖层的目标靶区,并依次开展了地质安全性和经济适宜性分析。利用碳封存领导人论坛潜力评估公式,计算了目标靶区推荐储层的单位面积储存潜力;并在构建综合储集条件、地质安全性条件和经济适宜性条件的指标体系基础上,开展了GIS多源信息叠加评估,在丽水西次凹内筛选出两处较好的场地。研究对开展该区海域CO₂地质储存选址具有一定的探索意义。     

Seismicity and fault aseismic deformation caused by fluid injection in decametric in-situ experiments

Seismicity induced by fluid perturbations became an important societal concern since felt earthquakes (M_w up to 6) occurred after anthropogenic activities. In order to mitigate the risks associated with undesired seismicity, as well as to be able to use the micro-seismicity as a probe for in-depth investigation of fluid-driven processes, it is of crucial importance to understand the links between seismicity, fluid pressure and flow. We have developed a series of in-situ, decameter-scale experiments of fault zone reactivation by controlled fluid injection, in order to improve the near-source geophysical and hydromechanical observations. The deployed geophysical monitoring close to the injection allows one to cover the full frequency range of the fault responses from the static deformation to the very high-frequency seismic emissions (up to 4 kHz). Here, we focus on the microseismicity (M_w ∼ –4 to –3) recorded during two fluid injection experiments in low-permeable shale and highly-fractured limestone formations. In both experiments, the spatio-temporal distribution of the seismic events, the energy balance, and the seismic velocity changes of the fractured medium show that most of the deformation does not actually emit seismic signals. The induced deformation is mainly aseismic. Based on these high-resolution multiparametric observations in the near-field, we therefore proposed a new model for injection-induced seismicity: the seismicity is not directly induced by the increasing fluid pressure, but it is rather triggered by the stress perturbations transferred from the aseismic motion caused by the injection.