中国耕地和农村宅基地利用转型耦合特征与机制(英文)

Land use transition refers to the changes in land use morphology (both dominant morphology and recessive morphology) of a certain region over a certain period of time driven by socio-economic change and innovation, and it usually corresponds to the transition of socio-economic development phase. In China, farmland and rural housing land are the two major sources of land use transition. This paper analyzes the spatio-temporal coupling characteristics of farmland and rural housing land transition in China, using high-resolution Landsat TM (Thematic Mapper) data in 2000 and 2008, and the data from the Ministry of Land and Resources of China. The outcomes indicated that: (1) during 2000-2008, the cor-relation coefficient of farmland vs. rural housing land change is -0.921, and it shows that the change pattern of farmland and rural housing land is uncoordinated; (2) the result of Spear-man rank correlation analysis shows that rural housing land change has played a major role in the mutual transformation of farmland and rural housing land; and (3) it shows a high-degree spatial coupling between farmland and rural housing land change in southeast China during 2000-2008. In general, farmland and rural housing land transition in China is driven by socio-economic, bio-physical and managerial three-dimensional driving factors through the interactions among rural population, farmland and rural housing land. However, the spatio-temporal coupling phenomenon and mechanism of farmland and rural housing land transition in China are largely due to the "dual-track" structure of rural-urban develop-ment.     

How does land consolidation affect rural development transformation?

China’s rural territory is entering a critical stage of transformation and development. Promoting rural development and transformation is an important path to achieve rural vitalization, and land consolidation is expected to become the starting point to boost rural transformation. To clarify the internal relationship between land consolidation and rural development transformation is an important scientific proposition. This paper constructs a theoretical framework of rural land consolidation(RLC...     

Land consolidation: An indispensable way of spatial restructuring in rural China1简

The implementation of new type industrialization and urbanization and agricultural modernization strategies lacks of a major hand grip and spatial supporting platform, due to long-term existed ＂dual-track＂ structure of rural-urban development in China as well as un- stable rural development institution and mechanism. It is necessary to restructure rural pro- duction, living and ecological space by carrying out land consolidation, so as to establish a new platform for building new countryside and realizing urban-rural integration development in China. This paper develops the concept and connotation of rural spatial restructuring. Basing on the effects analysis of industrialization and urbanization on rural production, living and ecological space, the mechanism of pushing forward rural spatial restructuring by carry- ing out land consolidation is probed. A conceptualization of the models of rural production, living and ecological spatial restructuring is analyzed combining with agricultural land con- solidation, hollowed villages consolidation and industrial and mining land consolidation. Fi- nally, the author argues that a ＂bottom-up＂ restructuring strategy accompanied by a few ＂top-down＂ elements is helpful for smoothly pushing forward rural spatial restructuring in China. In addition, the optimization and restructuring of rural production, living and ecological space will rely on the innovations of regional engineering technology, policy and mechanism, and mode of rural land consolidation, and more attentions should be paid to rural space, the foundation base and platform for realizing urban-rural integration development.     

1987–2010年中国新增建设用地占用耕地格局演变研究（英文）

Over the past few decades,built-up land in China has increasingly expanded with rapid urbanization,industrialization and rural settlements construction.The expansions encroached upon a large amount of cropland,placing great challenges on national food security.Although the impacts of urban expansion on cropland have been intensively illustrated,few attentions have been paid to differentiating the effects of growing urban areas,rural settlements,and industrial/transportation land.To fill this gap and offer comprehensive implications on framing policies for cropland protection,this study investigates and compares the spatio-temporal patterns of cropland conversion to urban areas,rural settlements,and industrial/transportation land from 1987 to 2010,based on land use maps interpreted from remote sensing imagery.Five indicators were developed to analyze the impacts of built-up land expansion on cropland in China.We find that 42,822 km2 of cropland were converted into built-up land in China,accounting for 43.8% of total cropland loss during 1987–2010.Urban growth showed a greater impact on cropland loss than the expansion of rural settlements and the expansion of industrial/transportation land after 2000.The contribution of rural settlement expansion decreased;however,rural settlement saw the highest percentage of traditional cropland loss which is generally in high quality.The contribution of industrial/transportation land expansion increased dramatically and was mainly distributed in major food production regions.These changes were closely related to the economic restructuring,urban-rural transformation and government policies in China.Future cropland conservation should focus on not only finding a reasonable urbanization mode,but also solving the "hollowing village" problem and balancing the industrial transformations.     

近两百年江苏省城乡建设用地数量估算与空间重建（英文）

Land cover is the most evident landscape signal to characterize the influence of human activities on terrestrial ecosystems.Since the industrial revolution,the expansion of construction land has profoundly changed the status of land use coverage and changes.This study is proposed to reconstruct the spatial pattern of construction land(urban construction land and rural settlement land)for five historical periods over the past 200 years in Jiangsu Province with 200 m′200 m grids on the basis of quantitative estimation.Urban construction land is estimated based on data about city walls,four gates along walls,and other socio-economic factors.Rural settlement land is calculated based on the rural population and per capita housing allowance.The spatial pattern of historical construction land is simulated based on the distribution of modern construction land in 1985 with a quantitative-boundarysuitability control method and thorough consideration over connectivity of different land use types.The study concludes that:(1)the amount of construction land in Jiangsu Province is estimated at 963.46 km~2 in 1820,1043.46 km~2 in 1911,1672.40 km~2 in 1936,1980.34 km~2 in1952 and 10,687.20 km~2 in 1985;and(2)the spatial distribution of construction land features the great proclivity to water bodies and main roads and the strong polarization of existent residence.The results are verified directly and indirectly by applying the trend verification of construction land changes and patterns,the correlation analysis between rural settlement land and local arable land,and quantitative accuracy test of the reconstructed construction land to actual historical survey maps covering four sample regions in 1936.     

Spatio-temporal analysis of land-use conversion in the eastern coastal China during 1996–2005

Based on the acquaintance of the regional background of urban-rural transformational development and investigations on the spot,this paper discusses the holistic situation, dominant factors and mechanism of arable land loss and land for construction occupation in the coastal area of China over the last decade,with the aid of GIS technology.Conclusions of the research are summarized as follows：（1）the arable land had been continuously decreasing from 1996 to 2005,with a loss of 1,708,700 hm^2 and an average decrement of 170,900 hm^2 per year;（2）land for construction increased 1,373,700 hm^2 ,with an average increment of 153,200 hm^2 per year;（3）total area of encroachment on arable land for construction between 1996 and 2005 was 1,053,100 hm^2 ,accounting for 34.03%of the arable land loss in the same period,the percentages of which used for industrial land（INL）,transportation land（TRL）,rural construction land（RUL）and town construction land（TOL）are 45.03%,15.8%,15.47%and 11.5%,respectively;and（4）the fluctuation of the increase of construction land and encroachment on arable land in the area were deeply influenced by the nation＇s macroscopic land-use policies and development level of regional economy.The growth of population and advancement of technology promoted the rapid industrialization, construction of transportation infrastructures,rural urbanization and expansion of rural settlements in the eastern coastal area,and therefore were the primary driving forces of land-use conversion.     

中国山区农村土地利用转型及其对土地整治的政策启示（英文）

The cultivation of mountainous land results in water loss and soil erosion. With rapid urbanization and industrialization in China, labor emigration relieves the cultivation of mountainous areas in regions with high poverty and leads to a significant land use transition. This research built an analysis framework for "land use transition – driving mechanism – effects –responses" for mountainous areas of China undergoing land use transition and then proposed the direction of mountainous land consolidation. The results showed that the turning point of land use morphology was the core of rural land use transition in mountainous areas. The expansion of cropland and the contraction of forestland have transitioned to the abandonment of cropland and the expansion of forestland; this transition was the main characteristic of the dominant land use change. Land marginalization and land ecological functional recovery were the main characteristics of the recessive land use transition in mountainous areas. Socioeconomic factors were the primary driving forces during land use transition in mountainous areas, with labor emigration being the most direct force. The rising costs of farming and the challenging living conditions causing labor emigration were fundamental driving forces. Rural land use transition in mountainous areas reduced the vulnerability of the ecological function of land ecosystems. The advantages and disadvantages of the socioeconomic effects should focus on rural development of mountainous areas as well as the livelihood of farmers; this should be further supported by empirical and quantitative research. Rural land use transition of mountainous areas improves natural restoration and is related to socioeconomic development. Rural land consolidation of mountainous areas should conform to land use transition,with the goal of shifting from the increase of cultivated land to the synergies of ecological and environmental protection.     

农户的非农就业如何影响中国的土地流转?

To clarify the impact of non-agricultural employment on rural land circulation in China,we built logit models using the Chinese Household Income Project 2013 dataset,which includes 18,948 household samples over 15 provinces,126 cities and 234 counties of China in 2013.We use the proportion of non-agricultural income,the proportion of non-agricultural laborers and non-agricultural fixed operating assets to reflect the degree of the households’dependence on agriculture,the degree of the households’laborers committed to non-agricultural employment and the stability of non-agricultural employment,respectively.The results show that the stability of non-agricultural employment is an important reason for farmers to transfer out their land,and an increase in non-agricultural income is the fundamental reason.The proportion of non-agricultural assets has the greatest impact on the decision to transfer land,followed by the proportion of non-agricultural income.Per unit increase in the non-agricultural income ratio has a stronger effect on the transfer-out decision than it does on the transfer-in decision,which is a 0.09 increase of the probability of transfer-out the land and a 0.07 decrease of the probability of transfer-in the land.In terms of regional differences,when considering the impact of non-agricultural employment on the land transfer-out decision,the impacts of non-agricultural income and labor force are the greatest in the Central region.The impact of non-agricultural assets is the greatest in the Eastern region.For the Eastern region,the decision to transfer out land is mainly affected by non-agricultural assets and the non-agricultural labor force,and the decision to transfer in land is mainly affected by non-agricultural assets.In the Central and Western regions,the decision to transfer out land is mainly affected by non-agricultural assets,non-agricultural income and the non-agricultural labor force,in that order.The decision to transfer in land in the Central region is not significantly affected by non-agricultural employment.The decision to transfer in land in the Western region is mainly affected by non-agricultural assets,non-agricultural labor force and non-agricultural income,in that order.We note that non-agricultural assets have a prominent impact on land transfer,which shows that the stability of non-agricultural employment has an important impact on land transfer decision-making.Vocational training for rural labor forces may be an effective means to promote stable non-agricultural employment and simultaneously facilitate rural land circulation,especially in Central and Western China.     

贫困地区荒山土地整治的综合效应研究——以河北省阜平县为例（英文）

Land is the root of rural revitalization, and its core is to reinvigorate land resources through the building up of land capacity. Since the late 1990s, land consolidation efforts have been widely extended to all parts of China. Land consolidation has served as an essential instrument for reinvigorating stock land, strengthening intensive land use, timely supplementing cultivated land, and promoting agricultural modernization, as well as urban-rural integration. This study uses a typical poor village(Dadao Village) in a state-designated impoverished county(Fuping County, Hebei Province), to analyze the socioeconomic benefits and eco-environmental impacts of land consolidation. With the aid of first-hand data from questionnaire surveys, face-to-face interviews and the visual interpretation of land use and land cover changes(LUCC), we found that: 1) the barren hilly land consolidation(BHLC)helps to promote the transformation of resource-advantages into asset-advantages in poverty-stricken areas. In 2017, 60.16% households in the study area gained the additional transferred-income with an annual average of 2843 yuan, while 19.11% households received the wage-income with an annual average of 9871 yuan. 2) Land consolidation inspires farmers' enthusiasm to participate in village government and helps alleviate rural poverty. From 2014 to 2017, land consolidation has helped 585 poor in the village out of poverty. Meanwhile,by land consolidation, most farmers' attitudes towards land consolidation have shifted from"not caring" to "have great concern," and their identity cognition has gradually changed from being bystanders to becoming decision makers and supervisors. 3) Further analysis demonstrated that land consolidation could not only increase the quantity and quality of arable land,but also have a certain impact on eco-environment. During 2014–2016, the BHLC in the study area transformed 242.12 ha unused barren hilly land and open forest land into well-facilitated arable land, and increased the average arable land by 0.19 ha per capita. Also, the index of land use intensity increased by 27.01% between 2014 and 2016. Farmers' perceptions of environmental awareness have confirmed that such high-intensity LUCC were significant enough to make two-side impacts on eco-environment. We appeal to establish a combined organization and encouragement mechanism of rural land consolidation, to take the full breadth and depth of farmers' participation into consideration, and to formulate more scientific and sustainable land consolidation planning. Also, we put forward some suggestions and notes for the implementation and promotion of BHLC model. These findings can provide beneficial references for those involved in policymaking and planning in the areas of land consolidation and poverty alleviation in China, as well as other developing countries around the world.     

Adaptive evolution of the rural human–environment system in farming and pastoral areas of northern China from 1952–2017

The theory on the cyclic adaptation between society and ecosystems sheds new light on the evolution and internal structure of human–environment systems. This paper introduces the risk index(RI) and adaptation capacity index(ACI) to evaluate the rural human–environment system. An evaluation index system for the adaptability of rural human–environment systems is configured in the context of climate change and policy implementation. On this basis, the stages, features, dominant control factors, and evolution mechanism were examined vis-à-vis the adaptability of the rural human–environment system in Darhan Muminggan Joint Banner from 1952 to 2017. The main results are as follows:(1) The evolution of the rural human–environment system can be divided into three stages, namely, the reorganization and rapid development stage(1952–2002) with population, cultivated land, livestock and degraded grassland increasing by 260%, 13%, 134% and 16.33%, respectively. The rapid to stable development stage(2003–2010) with population increasing by 2.8%; cultivated land, livestock and degraded grassland decreasing by 2.3%, 13.6% and 10.7%, respectively. The stable to release stage(2011–2017) with population, cultivated land, livestock and degraded grassland decreasing by 2.6%, 0.2%, 10.6% and 3.8%, respectively.(2) With the passage of time, the ACI of the rural human–environment system first increased slightly(–0.016–0.031), followed by a slight decline(0.031–0.003), and culminating in a rapid increase(0.003–0.088). In terms of spatial patterns, adaptability is high in the middle, moderate in the north, and low in the south.(3) The evolution of adaptability in the rural human–environment system was mainly controlled by the per capita effective irrigation area(22.31%) and the per capita number of livestock(23.47%) from 1990 to 2000, the desertified area(25.06%) and the land use intensity(21.27%) from 2000 to 2005, and the per capita income of farmers and herdsmen(20.08%) and the per capita number of livestock(18.52%) from 2010 to 2007.(4) Under the effects of climate change and policy interventions, the cyclic adaptation of the rural human–environment system was propelled by the interactions between two kinds of subjects: farmers and herdsmen on the one hand and rural communities on the other hand. The interaction affects the adaptive behavior of the two kinds of subjects, which in turn drives the cyclic evolution of the system. As a result, the system structure and functions developed alternatively between coordinated and uncoordinated states. Small-scale adaptive behaviors of farmers and herdsmen have a profound impact on the evolution of the rural human–environment system.     

Coordinated development efficiency between cultivated land spatial morphology and agricultural economy in underdeveloped areas in China: Evidence from western Hubei province

Suitable spatial morphology of cultivated land is a basic requirement for sustaining agricultural economic development in mountainous areas. Coordinated development efficiency of cultivated land spatial morphology and agricultural economy(CECA) is of great practical significance to measure the efficiency of cultivated land use, and thereby promote regional rural revitalization. However, few studies to date have focused on coordinated development efficiency between cultivated land use and agricul...     

旅游地乡村聚落演变与土地利用模式——野三坡旅游区三个旅游村落案例(英文)

Rural tourism has become an important driving force of rural urbanization in China. As the main reception base and important tourism attraction, tourism village is the core element of the tourism destination system. Integrating the method of PRA(Participatory Rural Assessment), GIS technology and high-resolution remote sensing images, this study aims to analyze the spatial morphology evolution of rural settlements induced by tourism through a comparative study of three tourism villages in Yesanpo tourism area. The results suggest the emergence of a "core-periphery" pattern of the spatial evolution of rural settlements. The closer to the core scenic spot, the higher degree of land-use intensity the village shows, as well as the more mature tourism function and greater change in landscape pattern. In particular, Gougezhuang shows an increase of the floor area ratio from 0.17 to 0.44, with the most mature tourism function and the lowest authenticity index of 0.448. Liujiahe has gone through the largest increase in construction land area from 17.3564 ha to 34.1128 ha, with moderately mature tourism function and relatively stable authenticity index of 0.566. Shangzhuang has the lowest construction land scale and intensity, with the poorest tourism function and most well-preserved landscape authenticity index of 0.942. Overall, in terms of the spatial morphology, the three villages show the characteristics of "modern town", "semi-urbanization" and "traditional village" respectively, in corresponding to three land development types: "intensive reconstruction type", "enclave extension type" and "in situ utilization type". The spatial evolution patterns of these three villages imply the spatial characteristics of the touristization of traditional villages in different stages, and also have great representative value for the management of rural settlements in tourism areas in China.     

西安市土地利用与环境关系的协调研究

In this paper we adopt annual land use conditions change data, land sifting data, social, economic and population data and environment information of nine districts and four counties in Xi＇an city from 1980 to 2000 to analyze its structural and degree change of land use since the 1980s, and calculate the benefits and transformation of land use type. The results show that the non-agricultural land increased rapidly, especially the urban and rural residential spots and industrial and mining （RIM） land use increased mostly rapidly, an increase of 64%. Meanwhile, the intensity of land exploitation was accelerating, land was transformed to industries with better benefit and areas experiencing faster urbanization process. By analyzing the harmonious degree of land exploitation in economic and environmental aspects, we find out that the land use imbalance mainly existed in the municipal area of Xi＇an, and the imbalance index of land use based on GDP and non-agricultural population were respectively 12.37 and 14.67 in 2000, which were far higher than those in other regions. Nevertheless the environmental harmonious degree in the municipal area of Xi＇an ranges between 0.6 and 0.8, which was better than that of suburban area. Some proposals addressing to the problems of harmonious level in all scales, resources utilization, projects management and feasibility analysis and intensive urbanization are also put forward.     

青藏高原东部山地农牧区生计与耕地利用模式

This study examined livelihood diversification and cropland use pattern in Keerma village, located in Jinchuan County, eastern Tibetan Plateau. Through stratified random sampling survey, participatory rural appraisal, investigation of households＇ plots and statistical methods, 63 households and 272 cropland plots were systemically investigated and sampled. The results show： （1） Different types of household have variety livelihood strategies, portfolio and income. Livelihood diversification and introducing and expanding off-farm activities can be the future trend, whereas, adverse natural environment, socio-economic conditions and peasants＇ capabilities together affect sustainable livelihood and land use. （2） Each livelihood strategy has its own impact on land use, mainly affecting land use type and land use intensi- fication level. （3） Diversification into off-farm activities could be the key of building sustainable livelihood and the essential approach of realizing sustainable land use in the region.     

Characterization of landscape pattern based on land economic niche change: A case study in Ganzhou,Gansu Province,China

Land use change has a profound impact on biodiversity and ecological processes, and is closely related to changes in landscape patterns. This paper introduces the theory and method of land economic niche into landscape ecology, which provides a new method for spatial characterization of urban and rural spatial landscape patterns. Based on this theory, this paper analyzes the landscape pattern of Ganzhou District by using Landsat images as data source in 1995, 2000, 2005,2010 and 2015. We calculated the land economic niche by applying the niche potential theory. Combined with the theory of landscape ecology, we explored the effects of the land economic niche change on the landscape pattern at a county scale.The results show that economic niche of construction land, watershed and farmland increased during 1995–2015, and grassland declined significantly. The economic niche of farmland, construction land, watershed and grassland show a negative correlation with the number of patches(NP), fragmentation index(FN) and the fractal dimension index(FD), and had a positive correlation with the aggregation index(AI). There was no significant correlation between the forest land economic niche and landscape metrics. The change of land economic niche has a driving effect on the landscape pattern of the county, which can represent the economic development direction of Ganzhou District. The land economic niche is closely related to the landscape type which can directly obtain an economic benefit.     

美丽中国与国土空间规划关系的地理学思考

The concept of‘Beautiful China'is a new goal of ecological construction in the new era of socialism and aims to meet the needs of people as they strive for a better life.National land spatial planning is one major component of the Chinese state's overall planning for various spatial types.The concept of‘Beautiful China'is thus a leading goal of Chinese development in the second centenary.The background of this concept aims for‘ecological beauty'as well as the combined beauty of‘economy-politics-culture-society-ecology.'The construction of‘Beautiful China'therefore necessitates a differentiated evaluation index system that is built on the basis of local conditions.This concept is intimately related to land spatial planning and the idea of Beautiful China guides an important direction for this planning which itself provides an important mechanism and spatial guarantee for construction.The establishment of land spatial planning nevertheless needs to strengthen further discussion of the regional system of human-land relationship,point axis system,main functional division,sustainable development,resources and environmental carrying capacity as well as new urbanization,and the rural multi-system.The aim of this paper is to summarize current thinking in land spatial planning,scientifically analyze the natural geographical conditions,the socioeconomic development,the interrelationship of the land space,plan the goal,vision and path of land space,encourage the public to participate in and carry out dynamic evaluation,build an intelligent system platform for land and spatial planning to realize the goal of‘Beautiful China'from a geographical perspective.And they can also present key ideas relating to the compilation and implementation of land spatial planning.     

长株潭城市群地区乡村功能的动态演变及驱动机制（英文）

As the Rural Revitalization Strategy is gradually implemented, China's rural areas are set to have more diverse function requirements. This paper selects the Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan region(Chang-Zhu-Tan) consisting of 23 county-level units) as a case study and looks at its economic development, agricultural product supply, social security and ecological service functions during 1996–2016. It then constructs an index system to evaluate the temporal evolution of the region's rural functions. SPSS 19.0 and DPS 7.05 software, as well as Pearson's correlation coefficient analysis, system clustering, optimal segmentation of ordered samples and other methods, are used to study the evolution traits, regional differentiation characteristics and driving forces of rural functions in the region. The results show, first of all, that the overall evolution trend is increasing in functions with periodic characteristics, the key nodes being 2000 and 2008. Second, there is clear geographical differentiation in the evolution of rural functions. The economic development function shows rapid growth in the urban agglomeration's center and relatively weak growth at the periphery; the agricultural product supply function and ecological service function are concentrated in county-level units with abundant cultivated and forest land; and the social security function displays similar geographical differentiation to the economic development function. Overall, there is an obvious discrepancy in the degree of development of rural functions among county-level units of the Changsha-Zhuzhou-Xiangtan urban agglomeration; the rural functions of the agglomeration and peripheral county-level units have different development traits; and county-level units display functional differentiation. Third, rural functions have evolved as a result of interactions between various factors, such as natural resources, socio-economic conditions and local transport conditions. The new driving forces caused by urbanization are ultimately leading the evolution of rural functions toward multi-functional comprehensive development.     

偏最小二乘法在苏锡常地区土地利用研究中的应用

In several LUCC studies, statistical methods are being used to analyze land use data. A problem using conventional statistical methods in land use analysis is that these methods assume the data to be statistically independent. But in fact, they have the tendency to be dependent, a phenomenon known as multicollinearity, especially in the cases of few observations. In this paper, a Partial Least-Squares （PLS） regression approach is developed to study relationships between land use and its influencing factors through a case study of the Suzhou-Wuxi-Changzhou region in China. Multicollinearity exists in the dataset and the number of variables is high compared to the number of observations. Four PLS factors are selected through a preliminary analysis. The correlation analyses between land use and influencing factors demonstrate the land use character of rural industrialization and urbanization in the Suzhou-Wuxi-Changzhou region, meanwhile illustrate that the first PLS factor has enough ability to best describe land use patterns quantitatively, and most of the statistical relations derived from it accord with the fact. By the decreasing capacity of the PLS factors, the reliability of model outcome decreases correspondingly.     

环渤海地区城乡发展转型的过程及成因研究(英文)

China's reform and opening-up policy has brought the country a great development opportunity. The high-speed growth of the economy not only led China to a period of industrialization, urbanization, informatization and agricultural modernization, but also exacerbated the situation of the urban–rural dual structure. Based on the review of current studies, we first used the analytic hierarchy process(AHP) method to evaluate the urban–rural development and transformation level by population transformation index, land transformation index, industrial transformation index and social transformation index between 1996 and 2012 around the Bohai Rim Region. Then, based on the results of each index, we used the exploratory spatial data analysis(ESDA) method to investigate the spatial autocorrelation of the change in the urban–rural development transformation index during the 16-year period using Global Moran's I index and Local Moran's I index. Finally, we investigated the mechanism of change of the urban–rural development transformation index at county level, summarizing five main factors:(1) the radiation from the surrounding big cities,(2) the acceleration of the urbanization process,(3) the upgrading of the industrial structure,(4) the publishing and implementation of a macro development strategy and regional policy, and(5) natural factors such as topology.