临汾盆地地裂缝基本特征研究

临汾盆地属于成长型盆地,是地裂缝发育较多的地区。本文通过详细的野外调查,查清了地裂缝的分布概况,总结了地裂缝的平面展布特征,通过探槽揭示了地裂缝的剖面结构特征,并概括了地裂缝的灾害特征。临汾盆地86条地裂缝主要分布在新构造活动强烈的临汾凹陷、侯马凹陷以及襄汾凸起等新构造单元区,与下伏断裂具有一致性和相关性。地裂缝发育的基本特征有平面展布特征、剖面结构特征、运动特征和活动特征。地裂缝平面展布特征多样,具有定向性、多样性、成带性和分段发育特征; 剖面结构有阶梯型、Y字型和梳状型; 运动特征是横向水平拉张、竖直位错; 活动特征具有活动间断、受降雨控制、活动差异和持续扩展。地裂缝引起的地面变形特征可分为剪切型和拉张型。地裂缝对房屋建筑的破坏类型有墙体开裂、屋顶开裂、楼梯断裂和门窗变形。     

Development characteristics and mechanisms of the Taigu–Qixian earth fissure group in the Taiyuan basin,China

Since the 1980s, increasing human activity and continuing over-exploitation of groundwater resources have caused the earth fissures in the rift basin in Shanxi, China, to enter an active phase. Buildings along these earth fissures have been seriously damaged. Four massive earth fissures that developed in the Taigu and Qixian areas of the eastern Taiyuan basin endanger the operational safety of the high-speed railway that passes through this region. Using field observations, measurements, and exploration, we determined that the four earth fissures are parallel to each other, have a northeast trend, and are separated by approximately equal distances. The rupture zones of these earth fissures are generally 10–50 m wide and are formed by the main fissures and secondary fissures. The width of the zone affected by the earth fissures is 20–50 m based on deformation and the damage done to buildings. These fissures formed on the Earth’s surface; their hanging walls are lower than their foot walls, forming normal faults; and the ground surface around the fissures exhibits ridges and depressions. The fissures are connected to deep hidden faults. The fault displacement increases with increasing depth, which is characteristic of syn-sedimentary faults. These earth fissures are characterized by vertical displacement, and their average annual activity rate is 1–3 cm. We believe that the formation of this large-scale fissure group may be related to the tectonic structure of the hidden faults in the basin and may also be affected by the continuous regional extensional stress of the basin. The current increased level of activity could be caused by the over-exploitation of groundwater in the area.     

地裂缝活动作用下地层应力和位移传递规律研究

以西安地裂缝典型地段为研究对象,建立基于实际地裂缝活动方式的地质力学模型,通过FLAC3D数值模拟,研究地裂缝活动作用下地层应力和位移传递规律。结果表明:地裂缝活动作用下,地表竖向沉降变形曲线近似呈反“S”形,表现出“牵引挠曲”现象,水平位移曲线出现明显波峰现象;随着地裂缝位错量的增大,地表竖向和水平位移均逐渐增大;基于地裂缝活动引起的地表变形平均倾斜值,确定了地裂缝带影响区范围为上盘21 m和下盘13 m。地裂缝活动引起两侧地层断距由深部到浅表部逐渐减小,具有明显的变形传递衰减特征,且地层断距随埋深的变化曲线可近似概化为一个四次多项式方程。地裂缝活动导致上盘地层出现应力降低区,下盘地层出现应力增强区,上盘应力降低区范围大于下盘应力增强区,且上、下盘应力变化范围随着位错量的增大均逐渐增大。地裂缝活动作用下地裂缝两侧地层应力影响区随地层埋深的增大而增大,其与埋深之间关系近似满足三次多项式方程。研究结果可为盆地断裂控制型地裂缝发育区的工程防灾减灾提供科学依据。     

Effect of Material Anisotropy on the Onset of Convective Flow in Three-Dimensional Fluid-Saturated Faults

In order to investigate the effect of material anisotropy on convective instability of three-dimensional fluid-saturated faults, an exact analytical solution for the critical Rayleigh number of three-dimensional convective flow has been obtained. Using this critical Rayleigh number, effects of different permeability ratios and thermal conductivity ratios on convective instability of a vertically oriented three-dimensional fault have been examined in detail. It has been recognized that (1) if the fault material is isotropic in the horizontal direction, the horizontal to vertical permeability ratio has a significant effect on the critical Rayleigh number of the three-dimensional fault system, but the horizontal to vertical thermal conductivity ratio has little influence on the convective instability of the system, and (2) if the fault material is isotropic in the fault plane, the thermal conductivity ratio of the fault normal to plane has a considerable effect on the critical Rayleigh number of the three-dimensional fault system, but the effect of the permeability ratio of the fault normal to plane on the critical Rayleigh number of three-dimensional convective flow is negligible.     

Insight into the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Qaidam Basin, Northwest China from fracture information

Fractures can provide valuable information for tectonic evolution. According to the data of outcrops, cores, thin sections and well logs, the tectonic fractures in the Qaidam Basin can be divided into four types: small faults (including small normal fault and small reverse fault), vertical open fracture, bedding plane slip fracture and horizontal open fracture. Our fracture observations provide new constraints on the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Qaidam Basin. Syn-sedimentary small normal faults in the Paleogene strata indicate the extension deformation during the Paleogene. Small reverse faults, vertical open fractures and bedding plane slip fractures occurred in the Paleogene and Neogene strata have genetic relationship. According to the burial history and homogenization temperature of fluid inclusions of gypsum and calcite filled in the vertical open fractures, it can be deduced that the vertical open fractures being formed mainly from the late Miocene Shangyoushashan Formation with age of 5.1?Ma to the end of Pliocene Shizigou Formation with age of 2.6?Ma, indicating small reverse faults, vertical open fractures and bedding plane slip fractures were simultaneously formed in the Neogene. These fractures were resulted from the compression deformation. The horizontal open fractures occurred in the Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary strata with apertures and intensities decreasing with depth were formed by the large-scale quick uplift and denudation resulted from the strong compression deformation since the Quaternary.     

The role of faulting on surface deformation patterns from pumping-induced groundwater flow (Las Vegas Valley, USA)

Land subsidence and earth fissuring can cause damage in semiarid urbanized valleys where pumping exceeds natural recharge. In places such as Las Vegas Valley (USA), Quaternary faults play an important role in the surface deformation patterns by constraining the migration of land subsidence and creating complex relationships with surface fissures. These fissures typically result from horizontal displacements that occur in zones where extensional stress derived from groundwater flow exceeds the tensile strength of the near-surface sediments. A series of hypothetical numerical models, using the finite-element code ABAQUS and based on the observed conditions of the Eglington Fault zone, were developed. The models reproduced the (1) long-term natural recharge and discharge, (2) heavy pumping and (3) incorporation of artificial recharge that reflects the conditions of Las Vegas Valley. The simulated hydrostratigraphy consists of three aquifers, two aquitards and a relatively dry vadose zone, plus a normal fault zone that reflects the Quaternary Eglington fault. Numerical results suggest that a 100-m-wide fault zone composed of sand-like material produces: (1) conditions most similar to those observed in Las Vegas Valley and (2) the most favorable conditions for the development of fissures to form on the surface adjacent to the fault zone.     

北京平原区地裂缝受灾体形态特征及影响因素

在调查和监测中发现北京平原区地裂缝受灾体灾害表现形式不同,具有显著的区域特点。为揭示其形成过程,指导地裂缝防治工作,本文以宋庄地裂缝、高丽营地裂缝两处典型地裂缝作为靶区,从受灾体、剖面、深度、活动四方面揭示两处地裂缝形态特征,分析不同因素对二者差异化形态特征塑造的影响。结果显示:（1）宋庄地裂缝受灾体表现出明显的拉张变形,剖面上地裂缝上宽下窄铅直纵向延伸,深部未与隐伏断裂重接复合;高丽营地裂缝受灾体表现为显著的垂向错动及剪切破坏,剖面上地裂缝曲折纵向延伸,错开上下两盘地层,深部与隐伏断裂重接复合。（2）地震及区域应力场对两处地裂缝的水平形态特征进行塑造;地下水超采引发的土体差异性水平运动形成的拉应力作用于宋庄地裂缝,并对宋庄地裂缝形态进行再次塑造;高丽营地裂缝继承了黄庄—高丽营断裂形态特征;小区域差异沉降对垂向形态特征进行再次塑造。（3）宋庄地裂缝发育主要受地下水开采影响,对此类地裂缝防治应实施地下水减采、压采限采等方式,高丽营地裂缝发育受地下水开采及隐伏断裂双重影响。对此类地裂缝的防治除控制水位下降外,还需实时监测隐伏断裂活动情况,建立有效的预警预报体系。     

Earth fissures in Qinglong Graben in Yuncheng Basin,China

Qinglong Graben is located in southeastern Yuncheng Basin, China flanked by two north-east trending normal faults, where the geological condition is favourable for generating earth fissures. Since 1978, five earth fissures have formed in Qinglong Gaben. In the present work, a series of geological investigation consisting of site investigation, geological drilling and trench excavation was used to characterise and determine the reasons for the formation of the earth fissures. The site investigation indicated that the trend of the five earth fissures are parallel to the general strike of the normal fault, i.e., geological drilling and trench studies revealed that syn-sedimentary fault is the key reason for the formation of the earth fissures. Additionally, over-exploitation of groundwater and erosion process are important factors in the development and expansion of the earth fissures in Qinglong Graben. The earth fissures forming process in Qinglong Graben can be divided into three stages: the regional extension first caused normal faults under the surface, and then the pumping action of excessive groundwater induced the normal faults propagate to the surface, and finally the erosion promoted the formation of the current earth fissure.     

先存断裂对抽水沉降及地裂缝活动影响的数值模拟

过度抽取地下水对断层构造型地裂缝的加剧作用是很明显的,但具体的作用机制却很复杂,过去的研究多是简单的定性分析,数值模拟和定量计算少有报道。笔者采用比奥(Biot)固结渗流理论和基于A、B面接触判断的库仑滑动和张裂的接触面单元,对抽水作用下地裂缝的活动进行了数值模拟,初步探讨了抽水活动引发和加剧地裂缝活动的机制。结果表明:抽水作用下抽水井周围水平应力场发生近井区挤压、远井区拉张的变化,当拉张区内的拉应力超过土体抗拉强度时将会出现自上而下的张裂缝;先存断裂的存在将影响应力变化的模式,同时由于断裂的软弱性,使得地层容易沿其发生滑动或拉裂,从而加剧地裂缝的活动;先存断裂对地面沉降和地裂缝具有诱导、隔离和放大的作用。     

塔里木盆地轮南地区油气运移的路径、期次及方向研究

本文通过对塔里木盆地轮南地区及附近的钻井（出油井和未出油井）中揭示的裂缝，裂缝与成岩序列的穿插关系，连通砂体及断层和不整合面附近的矿物及矿物中流体包裹体研究，对塔里木盆地轮南地区油气运移路径和期次进行了探讨。通过研究指出了塔里木盆地轮南地区主要经历了3期大规模的油气运聚，地层之间的不整合面为油气横向运移的主要通道。高角度的裂隙及微裂缝为纵向运移主要通道。第一期油气运聚主要发生于海西期，第二期油气运聚主要发生在14－17Ma；第3期油气运聚主要发生在最近的5Ma以来。第一期油气运聚主要为自塔北隆起的西南，南向北，以横向运移为主；第二，第三期运聚主要自西南，南向北，自东向西运移，但主要以垂向运移为主。     

Effects of fault activities on hydrocarbon migration and accumulation in the Zhu I Depression,Pearl River Mouth Basin,South China Sea

Faults can act as either conduits or barriers for hydrocarbon migration, because they have complicated anisotropic flow properties owing to their complicated three-dimensional structures. This study focuses on the Zhu I Depression, Pearl River Mouth Basin (PRMB), China. In this area, hydrocarbon migration and accumulation occurred over a relatively short period of time and were contemporaneous with fault activation, so the characteristics of hydrocarbon accumulations can be used to deduce the effect of active faults on hydrocarbon migration and accumulation. This study addresses the effect of fault activity on flow properties during hydrocarbon migration through a quantitative and comparative analysis of fault activity vs hydrocarbon accumulation. The fault slip rate and shale smear factor parameters were used to characterise faulting and elucidate its effect on hydrocarbon migration and accumulation. Active faults are generally excellent vertical conduits with strong fault activation resulting in vertical migration of most hydrocarbons and little preservation; traps near faults with fault slip rates greater than 20 m/Ma rarely contain commercial oil and gas accumulations. Faulting can form shale smear, which, if continuous, can act as a barrier to hydrocarbon migration. An active fault can allow hydrocarbon transport from deeper formations and to be trapped by continuous shale smear in shallower strata. Most of the oil and gas in the Zhu I Depression have accumulated near faults with a moderate fault slip rate (<20 m/Ma) and development of continuous shale smear (SSF<4–6).     

渭河盆地安仁镇地裂缝基本特征与成因分析

2016年野外地质调查发现渭河盆地东北侧安仁镇发育48条地裂缝,造成沿线房屋墙体开裂、道路错断和农田变形龟裂等,并严重威胁大西高铁安全运营。通过详细的地质调查和地质测绘发现其均位于地貌分界线两侧并发育在双泉-临猗断裂上盘,地裂缝走向为NE60°~80°,按发育位置可将其划分为5组地裂缝。选取典型地裂缝为研究对象,利用槽探和工程地质钻探揭示了地裂缝的剖面结构特征,发现地裂缝导致浅部土体破裂严重,地裂缝错断两侧地层且位错量随深度增加而增加,表现出同沉积断层的性质。在此基础上,对比西安地裂缝并详细分析了安仁镇地裂缝的成因机理,发现构造断裂、地震活动和表水潜蚀是地裂缝形成的主要因素。安仁镇地裂缝成因机理可概化为:构造控缝、地震启缝和表水扩缝。     

Three-dimensional compressional deformations in the Zailiski Alatau mountains,Kazakstan

Abstract

The classical model of faulting predicts that slip planes occur in two conjugate sets. Theoretically, more sets can be contemporarily active if pre-existing structures are reactivated in a three-dimensional strain field. Four to six sets of faults have been active in the Holocene in the Zailiski Alatau mountain range, Kazakstan. Faults strike with the highest frequency ENE and ESE and show mostly left-lateral reverse and right-lateral reverse motions, respectively. These faults have a bimodal distribution of dips, forming four sets arranged in orthorhombic symmetry. Locally, NNW- to NNE- striking vertical faults have also been active in the Holocene and show right-lateral strike-slip and left-lateral strike-slip motions, respectively. All these fault sets accommodated the general three-dimensional deformation, given by N-S-directed horizontal shortening, vertical extension, and E-W-directed horizontal extension. Field evidence also shows that the reverse motions, even if with a minor strike-slip component, occurred on high-angle planes with inclination of 65°-85°. ENE- and ESE-striking faults reactivated older fracture zones, whereas the other sets are newly formed. Comparison of these field results with the structures obtained from published analogue models shows a strong similarity of fault geometry and kinematics.     

Pumping-induced stress and strain in aquifer systems in Wuxi,China

Excessive groundwater withdrawal from an aquifer system leads to three-dimensional displacement, causing changes in the states of stress and strain. Often, land subsidence and sometimes earth fissures ensue. Field investigation indicates that land subsidence and earth fissures in Wuxi, a city in eastern China, are mainly due to excessive groundwater withdrawal, and that they are temporally and spatially related to groundwater pumping. Groundwater withdrawal may cause tensile strain to develop in aquifer systems, but tensile strain does not definitely mean tensile stress. Where earth fissures are concerned, the stress state should be adopted in numerical simulations instead of the strain state and displacement. The numerical simulation undertaken for the Wuxi area shows that the zone of tensile strain occupies a large area on the ground surface; nevertheless, the zone of tensile stress is very limited. The zone of tensile stress often occurs near the ground surface, beneath which the depth to the bedrock surface is relatively small and has considerable variability. Earth fissures often initiate near the ground surface where tensile stress occurs. Tensile stress and earth fissures rarely develop at the centers of land subsidence bowls, where compressive stress is dominant.     

Hanging wall deformation of a seismogenic megasplay fault in an accretionary prism: The Nobeoka Thrust in southwestern Japan

The structure and occurrence of deformation within the hanging wall of the Nobeoka Thrust in Kyushu, Japan, was investigated to understand the dynamic aspects of splay faulting in relation to seismic events. From field observations, hanging wall is suggested to have undergone four phases of deformation. The first phase involved horizontal shortening, as documented by folding and thrusting, followed by a phase of vertical loading shown by the development of horizontal slaty cleavages, pressure solution, and cleavage-parallel mineral vein precipitation. A third phase involved shearing, and deformation along cleavage restricted to near the Nobeoka Thrust, while the fourth phase produced widespread, brittle fracturing associated with the development of pseudotachylyte-bearing faults and tension crack filling veins high angle to cleavage. These four phases can be explained as follows.During the inter-seismic period, an extensionally stable taper was maintained in the inner wedge of the accretionary prism by dominant vertical loading (σ1), in combination with a lesser amount of horizontal compression (σ2) related to the locking of the mega-thrust. Elastic strain energy in the hanging wall of the inner wedge was co-seismically released by slip on the mega-thrust and horizontal shortening in the outer wedge associated with dynamic ductile weakening of the fault plane. This sudden release of elastic strain caused brittle fracturing with σ1 at a high angle to the shear surface of the Nobeoka Thrust, most of the displacement resulting from deformation of the footwall.     

Role of shear along horizontal plane in the formation of helicoidal structures

An unusual structural paragenesis, complicated by brachyanticlines, is revealed for the first time in the sedimentary cover of the West Siberian Plate by 3D seismic surveying. These are linear (in plan view) systems of en-echelon arranged low-amplitude normal faults related to wrench faults in the basement. On different sides off a wrench fault, the planes of normal faults dip in opposite directions, forming a helicoidal structure that resembles the blades of a propeller. In the section parallel to the wrench fault, the boundaries of the beds and normal fault planes dip in opposite directions as well. In the section across the strike of the normal faults converging toward the basement, the beds take the shape of an antiform with a crest sagged along the normal faults (flower structure). This structural assembly was formed as a result of interference of stress fields of horizontal shear in the vertical plane (induced by faulting in the basement) and in the horizontal plane (caused by gravity resistance of the cover). In this case, the displacements along the normal faults develop in both the vertical and, to a greater extent, horizontal directions, so that the faults in cover are actually characterized by normal-strike-slip kinematics. The regional N-S-trending compression of the West Siberian Plate is the main cause of shearing along the NW- and NE-trending faults in the basement, which make up a rhomb-shaped system in plan view. Petroliferous brachyanticlines, whose axes, notwithstanding tectonophysical laws, are oriented in the direction close to the maximum compression axis, are known in the large wrench fault zones of Western Siberia. Our experiments with equivalent materials showed that a local stress field arising at the ends of echeloned Riedel shears within a wrench fault zone may be a cause of the formation of such brachyanticlines. The progressive elongation of Riedel shears leads to the corresponding elongation of the brachyanticlines located between their ends. The performed study has shown that the known types of interference of elementary geodynamic settings such as horizontal shear along the vertical plane + horizontal compression (transpression) and horizontal shear along the vertical plane + horizontal extension (transtension) may be supplemented by combination of horizontal shears along the vertical and horizontal planes, resulting in tectonic lamination. By analogy, we propose to name this type of interference of elementary shear settings translamination. Petroliferous helicoidal structures arise in the given geodynamic setting of translamination.     

Holocene displacement along branch and secondary faults in the San Andreas fault zone, southern California

Detailed geologic mapping of the San Andreas fault zone in Los Angeles County since 1972 has revealed evidence for diverse histories of displacement on branch and secondary faults near Palmdale. The main trace of the San Andreas fault is well defined by a variety of physiographic features. The geologic record supports the concept of many kilometers of lateral displacement on the main trace and on some secondary faults, especially when dealing with pre-Quaternary rocks. However, the distribution of upper Pleistocene rocks along branch and secondary faults suggests a strong vertical component of displacement and, in many locations, Holocene displacement appears to be primarily vertical. The most recent movement on many secondary and some branch faults has been either high-angle (reverse and normal) or thrust. This is in contrast to the abundant evidence for lateral movement seen along the main San Andreas fault. We suggest that this change in the sense of displacement is more common than has been previously recognized.The branch and secondary faults described here have geomorphic features along them that are as fresh as similar features visible along the most recent trace of the San Andreas fault. From this we infer that surface rupture occurred on these faults in 1857, as it did on the main San Andreas fault. Branch faults commonly form “Riedel” and “thrust” shear configurations adjacent to the main San Andreas fault and affect a zone less than a few hundred meters wide. Holocene and upper Pleistocene deposits have been repeatedly offset along faults that also separate contrasting older rocks. Secondary faults are located up to 1500 m on either side of the San Andreas fault and trend subparallel to it. Moreover, our mapping indicates that some portions of these secondary faults appear to have been “inactive” throughout much of Quaternary time, even though Holocene and upper Pleistocene deposits have been repeatedly offset along other parts of these same faults. For example, near 37th Street E. and Barrel Springs Road, a limited stretch of the Nadeau fault has a very fresh normal scarp, in one place as much as 3 m high, which breaks upper Pleistocene or Holocene deposits. This scarp has two bevelled surfaces, the upper surface sloping significantly less than the lower, suggesting at least two periods of recent movement. Other exposures along this fault show undisturbed Quaternary deposits overlying the fault. The Cemetery and Little Rock faults also exhibit selected reactivation of isolated segments separated by “inactive” stretches.Activity on branch and secondary faults, as outlined above, is presumed to be the result of sympathetic movement on limited segments of older faults in response to major movement on the San Andreas fault. The recognition that Holocene activity is possible on faults where much of the evidence suggests prolonged inactivity emphasizes the need for regional, as well as detailed site studies to evaluate adequately the hazard of any fault trace in a major fault zone. Similar problems may be encountered when geodetic or other studies, Which depend on stable sites, are conducted in the vicinity of major faults.     

Deformation near a fault termination, part II: A normal fault in shales

In a previous paper, the strain field in the vicinity of the termination of an experimentally induced fault in clay was described. The present study deals with the strain field associated with the termination of a natural normal fault, and a comparison of the two is made.Samples were taken near the termination of a steeply dipping fault in the Green River Formation, Utah. The preferred orientation of basal planes of clay minerals was measured at 80 points in a three-dimensional array, using an X-ray pole-figure goniometer. From the preferred orientation data, strain was calculated according to the theory of March (1932). Strain remote from the fault, due to compaction alone, was determined bed by bed and subtracted from the strain observed near the fault. In this way the finite strain, presumably associated with faulting only, was determined.The displacement field was found by unstraining and superposing the unstrained and strained configurations. The displacement field, patterns of magnitudes of the second invariant of the strain tensor (being a measure of the shear strain), and those of the principal strains were found. They resemble analogous fields and patterns near strike-slip faults observed in experiments, deduced theoretically, and inferred from field observations on active natural faults, after coordinates are rotated so as to bring the fault planes and slip directions into coincidence.     

地震断层粘滑错动对青藏铁路变形效应的有限元分析——以东昆仑活动断裂为例

东昆仑断裂是青藏高原北部现今仍在强烈活动的左旋走滑地震断裂之一,该断裂的未来地震活动及其突发性粘滑错动是青藏铁路面临的重大工程地质问题.本文基于断裂几何学和运动学特征,通过加入8m的水平左旋位移,模拟了东昆仑断裂未来地震活动震中位于铁路线附近时铁路变形效应.结果表明,震中位于铁路线附近时,基岩整体移动,而第四纪松散层和道床则发生了变形,靠近断裂带附近的第四系自下而上水平位移明显减小,而铁轨和道床没有明显的断错,表现为长度约为25m的连续左旋弯曲变形;在铁路东、西两侧形成NE向的张裂陷和NW向的地震鼓包.在断裂带附近,铁轨发生了严重扭曲,铁轨应力自断裂带向两侧逐渐降低,而且铁轨的最大剪应力平面与铁轨的延伸方向垂直,因而在地震影响下,铁轨最有可能发生的破坏是剪切性的,并提出加宽路基、置换土层等工程防治措施.