京津冀城市群气候变化及影响适应研究综述

本文对2000年以来京津冀城市群气候变化及影响适应的研究成果进行了综述。研究表明：20世纪60年代以来,京津冀城市群年平均气温和极端高温指数显著升高,年降水量波动减少,到21世纪10年代,极端强降水指数降低。京津冀气候变化是全球变暖和城市化共同作用的结果,城市化加速了京津冀变暖趋势,增加了极端高温和极端强降水的频率和强度,气候风险高。未来京津冀城市群协同发展,面临高温热浪、强降水、水资源短缺和海平面上升等风险将更严峻,气候变化适应是京津冀城市群可持续发展面临的紧迫问题,适应策略等方面研究已取得了明显进展,但适用性和针对性还存在不足。本文提出了未来研究展望：深入研究城市化对气候变化的反馈,发展全球气候变化和城市化共同作用下的气候风险精细化预估技术,系统研究气候变化对城市的影响和不同行业的脆弱性,加强温室气体监测评估技术研究,加强适应气候变化的策略、路径和技术研究。     

IPCC AR6报告解读：气候变化对城市、住区和关键基础设施的影响与适应

IPCC AR6 WGII评估了气候变化对城市、住区和关键基础设施的影响、风险及应对。气候变化对城市影响的程度和范围逐渐增加,全球城市化的过程与气候变化相互作用加剧了城市和住区的风险。通过社会基础设施、基于自然的解决方案和灰色/工程基础设施所采取的适应措施对气候恢复力发展均有贡献,而城市适应差距在世界各地普遍存在。气候恢复力发展需要多方协作、弥合政策行动差距、提升适应能力。评估报告的经验和案例为我国城乡地区适应和应对气候变化风险提供借鉴。     

近44年南京温度变化的特征及其可能原因的分析

利用1957～2000年的气候观测资料,研究南京的平均温度、平均最高温度、平均最低温度和平均日较差及炎热日和寒冷日的变化趋势和特点,并分析可能的原因;以滁县和溧阳为对比城市站,分析了三种不同类型城市温度变化的异同.结果表明,近44年来南京平均温度显著上升,其中冬季增暖幅度最大,但夏季呈变凉趋势.与全国平均温度相比,线性变化趋势大体相似,但也存在一定差别.最高温度趋势与平均温度一致,夏季降温更为明显;最低温度除夏季外增暖都非常显著,表明气候变暖在最低温度上表现更加明显;年和各季日较差均明显减小;炎热日和寒冷日趋于减少,其开始和结束时间较以前有明显提前.大气环流系统的变异和调整可能是温度显著升高的直接原因.同样,长江中下游夏季降水天气增多、云量增加、日照时间减少以及伴随的温度下降可能也与环流系统的调整有关.南京与滁县、溧阳的温度差值分别为减小趋势或趋势变化不明显.三种类型城市增暖幅度的相对大小存在着年代际差异.由于不同类型城市间温度变化差异的复杂特点及其所反映出的城市化影响的复杂性,在研究温度变化和考虑城市化的影响时,不仅要考虑大城市,还应该充分注意中、小城市的发展所带来的影响.     

我国沿海城市应对气候变化的发展战略

我国沿海地区战略地位十分重要,并呈现“区域发展沿海化,沿海城市临海化”的趋势,但同时却面临着全球气候变化引起的海平面上升、极端气候灾害频发等诸多严峻挑战。为在战略层面解决我国向海发展的战略与全球气候变化的矛盾与冲突,文中提出了我国沿海城市应对气候变化的发展战略：确定了总体目标是建设适合我国国情的沿海气候弹性城市,提出了“规划引领、陆海统筹、主动适应、积极减排、适度冗余、增加弹性”的应对原则,明确了强化城市规划管控、控制空间发展方向、严控围填海造地、优化城市空间布局、提高规划设计标准、加强海岸防护设施、夯实城市基础设施和提升监测预警应急等8项重点任务。     

全球变暖与城市效应共同作用下的极端天气气候事件变化的最新认知

近年来,城市气候变化问题引起高度关注.综合IPCC第一工作组第六次评估报告(IPCC AR6)关于气候变暖背景下城市对极端天气气候事件影响的评估,本文得到以下科学认识:城市化加剧了局部气候变暖,全球许多城市都面临更多更强的高温热浪事件;城市化使得诸多城市区域及其下风向极端降水增加,地表径流加强;沿海城市受到日益加剧的与...     

Projections of climate change impacts on central America tropical rainforest

Tropical rainforest plays an important role in the global carbon cycle, accounting for a large part of global net primary productivity and contributing to CO₂ sequestration. The objective of this work is to simulate potential changes in the rainforest biome in Central America subject to anthropogenic climate change under two emissions scenarios, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. The use of a dynamic vegetation model and climate change scenarios is an approach to investigate, assess or anticipate how biomes respond to climate change. In this work, the Inland dynamic vegetation model was driven by the Eta regional climate model simulations. These simulations accept boundary conditions from HadGEM2-ES runs in the two emissions scenarios. The possible consequences of regional climate change on vegetation properties, such as biomass, net primary production and changes in forest extent and distribution, were investigated. The Inland model projections show reductions in tropical forest cover in both scenarios. The reduction of tropical forest cover is greater in RCP8.5. The Inland model projects biomass increases where tropical forest remains due to the CO₂ fertilization effect. The future distribution of predominant vegetation shows that some areas of tropical rainforest in Central America are replaced by savannah and grassland in RCP4.5. Inland projections under both RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 show a net primary productivity reduction trend due to significant tropical forest reduction, temperature increase, precipitation reduction and dry spell increments, despite the biomass increases in some areas of Costa Rica and Panama. This study may provide guidance to adaptation studies of climate change impacts on the tropical rainforests in Central America.     

Natural and anthropogenic climate change: incorporating historical land cover change,vegetation dynamics and the global carbon cycle

This study explores natural and anthropogenic influences on the climate system, with an emphasis on the biogeophysical and biogeochemical effects of historical land cover change. The biogeophysical effect of land cover change is first subjected to a detailed sensitivity analysis in the context of the UVic Earth System Climate Model, a global climate model of intermediate complexity. Results show a global cooling in the range of –0.06 to –0.22 °C, though this effect is not found to be detectable in observed temperature trends. We then include the effects of natural forcings (volcanic aerosols, solar insolation variability and orbital changes) and other anthropogenic forcings (greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols). Transient model runs from the year 1700 to 2000 are presented for each forcing individually as well as for combinations of forcings. We find that the UVic Model reproduces well the global temperature data when all forcings are included. These transient experiments are repeated using a dynamic vegetation model coupled interactively to the UVic Model. We find that dynamic vegetation acts as a positive feedback in the climate system for both the all-forcings and land cover change only model runs. Finally, the biogeochemical effect of land cover change is explored using a dynamically coupled inorganic ocean and terrestrial carbon cycle model. The carbon emissions from land cover change are found to enhance global temperatures by an amount that exceeds the biogeophysical cooling. The net effect of historical land cover change over this period is to increase global temperature by 0.15 °C.     

陆地生态系统与全球变化相互作用的研究进展

全球变化及其对生态系统特别是陆地生态系统的影响已经严重地影响到人类生存环境与社会经济的可持续发展 ,引起了各国政府、科学家及公众的高度关注。文中从CO2 浓度倍增、温度变化、水分变化、水热与CO2 协同作用、辐射变化、臭氧变化以及人为干扰等气候环境变化对植物光合生理、生长发育、物质分配、水分利用、碳氮代谢等的影响方面阐述了全球变化影响生态系统的过程与机理 ;从地理分布范围、物候、结构与功能、生态系统的稳定性等方面分析了中国植被、森林生态系统、草原生态系统与农田生态系统对全球变化的响应 ;从植被变化引起的动力条件与热力条件的变化及植被固碳潜力的变化探讨了植被对于气候的反馈作用。在此基础上 ,基于当前全球变化研究前沿 ,提出了未来关于陆地生态系统与全球变化相互作用研究需要重视的方面 ,尤其是关于生态系统对全球变化响应的阈值研究应引起高度重视。     

人为热释放:全球分布的估算及其气候效应的探索

人类生产和生活中大量消费各种形式的能源,除了向大气里排放温室气体和气溶胶外,还释放大量热量。人为热释放伴随着人类社会发展而长期存在,随着全球人口增长和经济发展,其影响效应不断加剧。人为热释放具有典型地域集中、不均匀分布的特征:虽然全球平均人为热释放通量仅约为0.03 W m-2,在人口密集的城市地区,人为热释放可高达每平方米数百瓦,足以影响局地气候。伴随全球经济的发展,人口的增长及城市化进程的加剧,人为热释放分布更集中,影响气候的范围逐步扩大,其对气候的影响能力逐步增强。全球气候模式的结果表明:人为热释放能够对全球大气环流产生影响,进而影响到全球气候变化。人为热释放可以导致全球地表温度增温约0.06 K,500 hPa温度场平均升温约0.04 K,尤其对北半球中高纬度升温效应明显。研究结果表明,人为热释放虽然没有温室气体如二氧化碳等影响因子对全球气候的影响那么显著,但是其仍然能够对全球气候产生影响,是全球气候变化不可忽视的影响因子。     

Urban greenspace as a climate change adaptation strategy for subtropical Asian cities: A comparative study across cities in three countries

Interest in nature-based approaches for climate change adaptation in cities is growing. Whilst there is a growing field of scholarship in a European and North America setting, research on the policy and governance of urban greenspace for climate adaptation in subtropical Asia is limited. Given the different development patterns, environmental characteristics and governance arrangements in subtropical cities, plus their comparatively large population and high climate risk, this is a significant knowledge gap. In response, this paper evaluates competences – skill sets, capabilities, and supporting policy and legislation – to enact adaptation through greenspace across different governance contexts; and assesses how international rhetoric on nature-based adaptation becomes localised to subtropical Asian city settings. We conduct interviews with stakeholders, plus review of relevant policy and city-specific research, for three cities with different governance and development contexts: Hanoi (Vietnam); Taipei (Taiwan); and Fukuoka (Japan). Across all three cases, we find that institutional structures and processes for connecting different remits and knowledge systems are a bigger challenge than a lack of appropriate policy or individuals with the required technical knowledge. However, opportunities for civil society participation and consideration of justice issues vary between the cities according to the socio-political context. These findings illustrate the value of individuals and organisations able to work across institutional boundaries in linking greenspace and adaptation agendas for subtropical Asian cities; and the importance of competence in collaboration with developers and civil society so that the rapid development or regeneration seen in subtropical Asian contexts does not tend towards green climate gentrification. More broadly, our findings show that the diverse nature of subtropical Asian cities means the role of greenspace in climate adaptation is likely to be context-specific, and thus that caution must be exercised against uncritically importing best practices from exemplar cases elsewhere.     

西南地区城市热岛强度变化对地面气温序列影响

利用1961—2004年我国西南地区322个站的气温观测资料, 分析了乡村站、小城市站、大中城市站和国家基准/基本站气温变化趋势特点, 着重研究了城市化对城镇站和国家站地面气温记录的影响程度和相对贡献比例。结果显示:区域平均的各类台站年平均气温呈现不同程度的上升趋势, 城市站、国家站的增温速率均高于乡村站。大中城市站和国家站的年平均热岛增温率分别为0.086 ℃/ 10a和0.052 ℃/10a, 其增温贡献率分别达57.6%和45.3%。与大多数地区不同, 西南地区的增温速率明显偏小。因此, 尽管平均热岛强度变化比许多地区弱, 但其相对贡献明显, 表明城市化对该区域气温趋势的绝对影响较弱, 但相对影响较强。另外, 城市热岛增温有明显的季节变化, 表现为秋季最强, 春季或冬季次之, 夏季最弱。热岛增温贡献率则为春季最大 (100%), 夏季次之 (73%以上), 秋季和冬季相对较小。这主要是因为春、夏两季背景气候变凉或趋势微弱, 热岛增温在实际增温中占有更高的比例。     

基于卫星遥感的植被NDVI对气候变化响应的研究进展

回顾了以往植被对气候响应的有关研究,从此类研究常使用的数据、方法及获取的结论3个方面进行了分析,重点阐述了归一化植被指数（Normalized Difference Vegetation Index,NDVI）对降水、温度和辐射等气候因子的响应特征,并探讨了未来的发展趋势。结果表明,植被NDVI对降水的显著响应往往出现在干旱半干旱地区和干湿季气候差异明显地区,且具有一定的滞后特征,滞后的时间尺度与局地条件关系密切;温度成为植被NDVI 控制因子的情况常出现在温带或寒温带地区,与对降水的滞后响应相比,植被对于温度的滞后响应并不是特别明显;辐射对于植被的主导影响主要出现在低纬度的部分区域、高云量区域和高纬度地区的特定时间段内。认为量化人类在植被对气候变化响应过程中的作用,全球变暖情形下植被对气候响应特征的深入分析,以及植被受气候影响的多尺度特征可能是以后此类研究的发展方向。     

Global vegetation change predicted by the modified Budyko model

A modified Budyko global vegetation model is used to predict changes in global vegetation patterns resulting from climate change (CO₂ doubling). Vegetation patterns are predicted using a model based on a dryness index and potential evaporation determined by solving radiation balance equations. Climate change scenarios are derived from predictions from four General Circulation Models (GCM's) of the atmosphere (GFDL, GISS, OSU, and UKMO). Global vegetation maps after climate change are compared to the current climate vegetation map using the kappa statistic for judging agreement, as well as by calculating area statistics. All four GCM scenarios show similar trends in vegetation shifts and in areas that remain stable, although the UKMO scenario predicts greater warming than the others. Climate change maps produced by all four GCM scenarios show good agreement with the current climate vegetation map for the globe as a whole, although over half of the vegetation classes show only poor to fair agreement. The most stable areas are Desert and Ice/Polar Desert. Because most of the predicted warming is concentrated in the Boreal and Temperate zones, vegetation there is predicted to undergo the greatest change. Specifically, all Boreal vegetation classes are predicted to shrink. The interrelated classes of Tundra, Taiga, and Temperate Forest are predicted to replace much of their poleward (mostly northern) neighbors. Most vegetation classes in the Subtropics and Tropics are predicted to expand. Any shift in the Tropics favoring either Forest over Savanna, or vice versa, will be determined by the magnitude of the increased precipitation accompanying global warming. Although the model predicts equilibrium conditions to which many plant species cannot adjust (through migration or microevolution) in the 50–100 y needed for CO₂ doubling, it is nevertheless not clear if projected global warming will result in drastic or benign vegetation change.     

2000年以来中国区域植被变化及其对气候变化的响应

气候是植被变化的主要驱动因子,研究全球增暖背景下中国区域植被变化及其对气候的响应对于国家开展重大生态恢复评估和未来植被保护政策制定具有重要意义。利用2000-2016年MODIS植被指数(Normalized Difference Vegetation Index,NDVI)数据集,运用统计分析方法,从平均态、线性趋势、时间序列、相关性等方面系统分析了2000年以来中国区域植被变化及其对气候变化的响应。结果表明:中国区域NDVI在平均态上呈现从东南向西北递减的空间分布,受降水生长季的影响,东部地区植被指数明显较大;我国大部分地区NDVI呈现增加的趋势,其中湿润半湿润地区NDVI增长幅度为0.037·(10a)^-1,而在干旱半干旱地区变化较小[0.013·(10a)^-1]。NDVI的变化与气候驱动因素的相关性存在一定的区域差异,其中:NDVI与气温变化在东南沿海、东北东部以及青藏高原北部等地区呈现出显著正相关,而在青藏高原南部等地区呈现微弱的负相关;除青藏高原、塔里木盆地和东北北部等地区外,NDVI与降水量在全国大多数地区呈正相关。从全国平均来看,温度和降水变化对NDVI的贡献分别为7.5%和9.1%,其中温度对NDVI变化的贡献主要体现在湿润半湿润地区(9.3%),而降水的贡献则在干旱半干旱地区(12.2%)。植被变化对气候要素驱动的响应也呈现出明显的区域差异性,在我国东南沿海、云贵高原东部、四川盆地等南方地区以及黄河中下游、东北东部等部分地区,NDVI变化对气温的敏感性最强;而在中国北方干旱半干旱大部分地区,NDVI变化则是对降水驱动具有很显著的响应特征。总体而言,气温是驱动南方地区植被变化的主导因子,而降水则调控着北方地区植被生长变化。     

Impact of land use changes on surface warming in China

Land use changes such as urbanization, agriculture, pasturing, deforestation, desertification and irrigation can change the land surface heat flux directly, and also change the atmospheric circulation indirectly, and therefore affect the local temperature. But it is difficult to separate their effects from climate trends such as greenhouse-gas effects. Comparing the decadal trends of the observation station data with those of the NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis (NNR) data provides a good method to separate the effects because the NNR is insensitive to land surface changes. The effects of urbanization and other land use changes over China are estimated by using the difference between the station and the NNR surface temperature trends. Our results show that urbanization and other land use changes may contribute to the observed 0.12℃ (10 yr)- 1 increase for daily mean surface temperature, and the 0.20℃ (10 yr)- 1 and 0.03℃ (10 yr)-1 increases for the daily minimum and maximum surface temperatures, respectively. The urban heat island effect and the effects of other land-use changes mayalso play an important role in the diurnal temperature range change. The spatial pattern of the differences in trends shows a marked heterogeneity.The land surface degradation such as deforestation and desertification due to human activities over northern China, and rapidly-developed urbanization over southern China, may have mostly contributed to the increases at stations north of about 38°N and in Southeast China, respectively. Furthermore, the vegetation cover increase due to irrigation and fertilization may have contributed to the decreasing trend of surface temperature over the lower Yellow River Basin. The study illustrates the possible impacts of land use changes on surface temperature over China.     

Linking regional stakeholder scenarios and shared socioeconomic pathways: Quantified West African food and climate futures in a global context

The climate change research community’s shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) are a set of alternative global development scenarios focused on mitigation of and adaptation to climate change. To use these scenarios as a global context that is relevant for policy guidance at regional and national levels, they have to be connected to an exploration of drivers and challenges informed by regional expertise.In this paper, we present scenarios for West Africa developed by regional stakeholders and quantified using two global economic models, GLOBIOM and IMPACT, in interaction with stakeholder-generated narratives and scenario trends and SSP assumptions. We present this process as an example of linking comparable scenarios across levels to increase coherence with global contexts, while presenting insights about the future of agriculture and food security under a range of future drivers including climate change.In these scenarios, strong economic development increases food security and agricultural development. The latter increases crop and livestock productivity leading to an expansion of agricultural area within the region while reducing the land expansion burden elsewhere. In the context of a global economy, West Africa remains a large consumer and producer of a selection of commodities. However, the growth in population coupled with rising incomes leads to increases in the region’s imports. For West Africa, climate change is projected to have negative effects on both crop yields and grassland productivity, and a lack of investment may exacerbate these effects. Linking multi-stakeholder regional scenarios to the global SSPs ensures scenarios that are regionally appropriate and useful for policy development as evidenced in the case study, while allowing for a critical link to global contexts.     

Global exposure to river and coastal flooding: Long term trends and changes

Flood damage modelling has traditionally been limited to the local, regional or national scale. Recent flood events, population growth and climate change concerns have increased the need for global methods with both spatial and temporal dynamics. This paper presents a first estimation of global economic exposure to both river and coastal flooding for the period 1970–2050, using two different methods for damage assessment. One method is based on population and the second is based on land-use within areas subject to 1/100 year flood events. On the basis of population density and GDP per capita, we estimate a total global exposure to river and coastal flooding of 46 trillion USD in 2010. By 2050, these numbers are projected to increase to 158 trillion USD. Using a land-use based assessment, we estimated a total flood exposure of 27 trillion USD in 2010. For 2050 we simulate a total exposure of 80 trillion USD. The largest absolute exposure changes between 1970 and 2050 are simulated in North America and Asia. In relative terms we project the largest increases in North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa. The models also show systematically larger growth in the population living within hazard zones compared to total population growth. While the methods unveil similar overall trends in flood exposure, there are significant differences in the estimates and geographical distribution. These differences result from inherent model characteristics and the varying relationship between population density and the total urban area in the regions of analysis. We propose further research on the modelling of inundation characteristics and flood protection standards, which can complement the methodologies presented in this paper to enable the development of a global flood risk framework.     

Greenhouse gas emissions from global cities under SSP/RCP scenarios, 1990 to 2100

Projections of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are critical to enable a better understanding and anticipation of future climate change under different socio-economic conditions and mitigation strategies. The climate projections and scenarios assessed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, following the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP)-Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) framework, have provided a rich understanding of the constraints and opportunities for policy action. However, the current emissions scenarios lack an explicit treatment of urban emissions within the global context. Given the pace and scale of urbanization, with global urban populations expected to increase from about 4.4 billion today to about 7 billion by 2050, there is an urgent need to fill this knowledge gap. Here, we estimate the share of global GHG emissions driven by urban areas from 1990 to 2100 based on the SSP-RCP framework. The urban consumption-based GHG emissions are presented in five regional aggregates and based on a combination of the urban population share, 2015 urban per capita CO₂eq carbon footprint, SSP-based national CO₂eq emissions, and recent analysis of urban per capita CO₂eq trends. We find that urban areas account for the majority of global GHG emissions in 2015 (61.8%). Moreover, the urban share of global GHG emissions progressively increases into the future, exceeding 80% in some scenarios by the end of the century. The combined urban areas in Asia and Developing Pacific, and Developed Countries account for 65.0% to 73.3% of cumulative urban consumption-based emissions between 2020 and 2100 across the scenarios. Given these dominant roles, we describe the implications for potential urban mitigation in each of the scenario narratives in order to meet the goal of climate neutrality within this century.     

Impact of urbanization on recent temperature and precipitation trends in the Korean peninsula

Urbanization has a significant impact on climate in urban areas. In this study, we investigate urbanization impacts on temperature and precipitation trends in Korean peninsula based on statistical relationship between these trends and local population growth. We found that there is a significant positive correlation between temperature rise and local population growth, indicating that urbanization has a significant contribution to temperature increase in city climate. As for temperature, the population growth in Korean cities is positively correlated with precipitation trend. The positive correlation is higher during summer time when small-scale convective activity is dominant. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the correlation is significantly increased when stations in rural areas and small cities are excluded. Such nonlinear relation between precipitation and urbanization is also discussed.     

Trends of urban surface temperature and heat island characteristics in the Mediterranean

Urban air temperature studies usually focus on the urban canopy heat island phenomenon, whereby the city center experiences higher near surface air temperatures compared to its surrounding non-urban areas. The Land Surface Temperature (LST) is used instead of urban air temperature to identify the Surface Urban Heat Island (SUHI). In this study, the nighttime LST and SUHI characteristics and trends in the seventeen largest Mediterranean cities were investigated, by analyzing satellite observations for the period 2001–2012. SUHI averages and trends were based on an innovative approach of comparing urban pixels to randomly selected non-urban pixels, which carries the potential to better standardize satellite-derived SUHI estimations. A positive trend for both LST and SUHI for the majority of the examined cities was documented. Furthermore, a 0.1 °C decade^?1 increase in urban LST corresponded to an increase in SUHI by about 0.04 °C decade^?1. A longitudinal differentiation was found in the urban LST trends, with higher positive values appearing in the eastern Mediterranean. Examination of urban infrastructure and development factors during the same period revealed correlations with SUHI trends, which can be used to explain differences among cities. However, the majority of the cities examined show considerably increased trends in terms of the enhancement of SUHI. These findings are considered important so as to promote sustainable urbanization, as well as to support the development of heat island adaptation and mitigation plans in the Mediterranean.